\ 


SIGN  WKITING 

AND 

GLASS  EMBOSSmG; 

A  COMPLETE  PRACTICAL 

ILLUSTRATED  MANUAL  OF  THE  ART 

BT 

JAMES  CALLINGHAM. 
TO  WHICH  ARE  ADDED  NUMEROUS  ALPHABETS. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

HENRY    CAREY    BAIRD    &  CO., 
INDDSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 

810    WALNUT  STREET. 
1890. 


PKINTKD  AT 

COLLINS  PRINTING  HOUSE, 

PHILADELPHIA,  V.  S.  A. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


In  presenting  to  the  public  this  edition  of 
Callingham's  Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embos- 
sing, but  few  prefatory  words  are  deemed  neces- 
sary. Suffice  it  to  say,  that  in  the  text  some 
trifling  alterations  have  been  made  in  order  the 
more  completely  to  adapt  it  to  American  uses  ; 
while,  in  the  form  of  plates,  have  been  added,  at 
the  end,  a  great  variety  of  Alphabets,  to  supply 
a  want  which  was  deemed  but  too  apparent — 
the  one  and  only  serious  shortcoming,  as  it  is  be- 
lieved, of  this  most  admirable,  useful,  and  artistic 
volume.  H.  C.  B. 

Philadelphia, 

May,  1,  1811. 

3 


PEEF  AGE. 


We  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  this  work  is  the 
first  which  has  appeared  on  the  subject  of  Sign  Writing  ; 
certainly  it  takes  precedence  as  treating  of  Glass  Em- 
bossing. 

Practical  knowledge  and  experience  of  these  arts  have 
enabled  us  to  present  a  complete  exposition  of  the  vari- 
ous branches,  as  practised  by  the  leading  sign-writers  of 
the  metropolis. 

Our  chief  object  has  been  to  assist  the  young  in 
acquiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Sign  Writing  and 
Glass  Embossing,  and  .to  aid,  with  suggestions  and  in 
formation,  those  who,  having  had  some  practice,  fall 
short  of  that  excellence  which  it  is  desirable  to  attain. 

The  foregoing  paragraph  will  account  for  some  of  the 
explanations  of  words  and  phrases  that  occur  in  this 
work,  and  which  to  the  educated  mind  will  no  doubt 
appear  unnecessary. 

If  the  course  of  instruction  herein  laid  down  should 
be  the  means  of  improving  in  any  degree  the  efforts  of 
those  already  engaged  in,  or  those  just  entering  upon  a 
study  cf  the  wondrous,  mystic  art "  of  "  painting 
speech,"  our  object  will  have  been  achieved 

London,  1871. 

4 


CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER  I. 

Introductory. 

History  of  Sig'ns,  Sign  Painting-,  and  Sign  Writing   9 

Signs  painted  by  Artists  of  Eminence   t2 

Hotten's  History  of  Sign-boards   12 

Aniiqnity  of  the  Art   17 

Early  Inscriptions  on  the  AValls  of  Ecclesiastical  Edifices — 

Sketch  of  their  History   18 

Development  of  the  Art  in  the  Reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and 

its  subsequent  Decline   22 

Its  Practice  by  the  Serjeant  Painters   23 

Joim  De  Critz   26 

Moxon  ,   28 

Cliristofel  Van  Dyck   29 

The  Art  of  Forming  and  Cutting  Letters,  and  the  Enact- 
ments Regarding  and  Limiting  the  Number  of  Persons 

engaged  in  it   29 

Monumental  Inscriptions  and  Brasses   31 

CHAPTER  IL 

DRAWING  ESSENTIAL  LINES. 

Straight  Lines  and  Curves   36 

Method  of  Practice   36 

Freedom  of  Hand   36 

Circles  and  Curves   36 

Parallel  Lines   38 

Uniformity  of  Outline   38 

Adjustment  of  the  Letters   39 

i 


J 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SETTING  OUT  TPIE  WRITING 


Classes  of  Alphabets   42 

Individuality  of  Style   42 

Roman  Capitals   43 

Italic  Capitals. .   43 

San-seriff  Capitals   43 

Egyptian  Capitals   43 

"  Snapping  "  a  chalk  line   4 

Adjusting  the  Lines   43 

Arc  of  a  Circle  or  a  Scroll   46 

Sketching  out  the  Writing   46 

Balancing  ,   47 

Number  of  Lines   4'' 

Lines  for  Ornamental  Writing   4f 

Old  English  or  Gothic     4! 

tilaiiting  Letters   49 


CHAPTER  IV. 

COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERALS. 

Attainment  of  Legibility  and  Distinctness  in  an  Alphabet  50 

Improvements   51 

Arabic  Numerals  and  their  Modifications  ,   52 

Roman  Letters  the  Groundwork  of  Modern  Alphabets   54 

Varieties  of  Style   54 

Introduction  of  San-seriff   5; 

Egyptian    55 

Clarendon   5; 

Type  Cutters  and  Writers   5i 

Proportions  of  Alphabetic  Characters   5( 

Seriffs   5' 

Position  of  Cross-bars   5' 

Capitals  and  Small  Letters   5' 

'J'hick  and  Thin  Strokes   5i 

The  Letter  S,  method  of  forming  it   5! 

San-seriff  S   6: 

Extremities  of  S  andC,  and  C  and  G   6. 

Strokes  of  Letters  composed  of  Oblique  Lines — A,  K,  V, 

etc   62 

Sign  Writing  on  the  Continent   63 


CONTENTS.  iii 

Rule  of  Albert  Durer   6-. 

Thickness  of  Letters   64 

Moxon   64 

Dutch  Letters   64 

Christofel  Van  Dyck   65 

Top  Arc  of  Letters  S,  0,  G,  etc.,  smaller  than  the  bottom  (jt) 

Curves  and  Points   65 

San-serifF  N  and  M   66 

Short  &   67 

The  Roman  J  and  G   69 

R   70 

Q   72 

Italics   72 

Old-face  Type   74 

Modern  'i'ype   74 

Mediaeval  Alphabets  ."   75 

The  late  Prince  Consort's  Taste   75 

Consistency   77 


CHAPTER  Y. 

ANCIENT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS. 

Originality   78 

Use  of  Ornament   79 

Harmony   79 

Want  Of  Harmony   79 

Sir  M.  Digby  Wyatt  on  Illuminated  Work   79 

Writing  Scripture 'J'exts  in  Churches   80 

Mediaeval  Church  Inscriptions   80 

Incongruities   81 

"  The  Model  Outline."   84 

Characteristics  of  Mediaeval  Alphabets   84 

Obsolete  Forms   85 

Alphabets  of  the  Twelfth  Century   85 

I  and  J  ;  U,  V  and  W   86 

The  Fifteenth  ('entury  Alphabets   87 

Capitals  and  "Minuscules"   88 

Different  Forms  of  Roman  Letters   88 

Letters  of  the  Tudoresque  Period  .'   90 

Careless  but  Graceful  Outlines   91 

Set  Styles   93 

Legible  and  Illegible  Writing   94 

Symmetry  and  Grace   95 


iv 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THICKNESSES  AND  SHADOWS. 


Blocked  or  Raised  Letters.....   97 

Linear  Perspective   99 

The  Thickness   100 

The  Shadow   100 

(Geometrical  Solids   102 

Deceiving  the  Eye   103 

The  Object  of  Thicknesses   103 

Imitation   104 

Light  and  Shade   105 

Gradations  of  Tints   106 

Reflections   106 

Representation  of  Sohd  Bodies   107 

Laws  of  Optics   107 

Jlxamples   109 

Raised  Letters   110 

fcjimk  Letters   112 

CHAPTER  TIL 

LETTERS  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 

Geometrical  Problem  for  Expanding  or  Contracting  Letters  115 

Elements  of  Perspective   119 

Perspective  of  Raised  Letters   121 

Perspective  of  Shadows   121 

Examples   121 

Effect  of  Distance   122 

To  Test  the  Work   124 

Perspective  Italic   127 

CHAPTER  Yin. 

COLORS  USED  IN  SIGN  WRITING. 

'J'heir  Nature  and  Method  of  Employment,  and  Yehicles 

used  for  diluting  Colors   129 

White  Lead   129 

Flake  White    180 

Zinc  White   130 


CONTENTS.  V 

Ivory  Black   131 

Veoetable  Black   132 

Yermilion   132 

Lake   134 

Rose  Madder   135 

Carmine   136 

Indian  Red   136 

Purple  Brown   136 

Light  Red,  Red  Lead,  and  Venetian  Red   137 

French  Ultramarine   137 

Prussian  Blue   137 

Intense  Blue   137 

Chrome  Yellow   138 

Yellow  Ochre   138 

Raw  Sienna   138 

Burnt  Sienna   138 

Vandyke  Brown   138 

Emerald  Green   138 

CHAPTER  IX. 

HINTS  ON  COLORING. 

Tint,  Shade,  and  Hue   140 

Harmonious  Arrangements   141 

Intense  Colors   142 

Capricious  Combinations   142 

'J'astes  Differ   143 

The  Sentiment  of  the  Coloring  as  suited  for  Different  Pur- 
poses   143 

Method  of  Practice  generally  followed  by  the  Sign  Writer.  143 

*'Cissing"   144 

Use  of  the  Sable  Pencil   144 

Writing  Pencils   145 

Common  Styles  of  Coloring   146 

Bright  Grounds   148 

Powerful  Contrasts   149 

Method  of  Procedure  in  regard  to  Colored  Writing   150 

Grained  and  Marbled  Grounds   154 

CHAPTER  X. 

GOLD  LEAF  AND  GILDING. 

Books  and  Hundreds  ,   157 

Alloys—"  Virgin      "  Medium  "—and  "  Deep  Gold  "   158 


vi  CONTENTS. 

Its  Ductility,  Malleability,  and  Thinness   159 

Substitutes  for  Gold  Leaf — Double  Gilt,  Dutch  Metal....  159 

"  Spider  Legs  "   161 

The  Cushion,  Cutting  Knife,  and  Tip   162 

Method  of  Gilding   162 

Pouncing   166 

Mordants   167 

CHAPTER  XL 

GLASS  EMBOSSING. 

Improvements  in  the  Manufacture  of  Glass   169 

Development  of  the  Art  of  Glass  Embossing   170 

Provincial  Work   172 

Etching  on  Glass   173 

Professor  Beckman   173 

Secreta   175 

Isinglass   176 

Fluoric  Acid — its  Nature  and  Properties   177 

Sir  Humphry  Davy   177 

Fluor  Spar   178 

Setting  out  the  Pattern   179 

Transferring  it  to  the  Glass   179 

Brunswick  Black   179 

Method  of  Procedure   179 

A  Caution   180 

Grinding  or  Obscuring  the  Glass   182 

Engraving  on  Glass   184 

Embossing  Colored  Glass   185 

"  Building  up  "  Designs   187 

Examples   188 

CHAPTER  XIL 

BURNISHED   GILDING  ON  GLASS. 

The  Art  long  a  Secret   192 

'J'he  Mordant  or  Size  for  Gilding    192 

Method  of  Gilding   193 

Burnishing   194 

Application  of  Heat   195 

Sizing   195 

The  Process  repeated   195 


CONTENTS.  vii 

Transferring  the  Writing  or  Pattern   196 

Black  Japan   19G 

Colors  used  for  Thicknesses  and  Shadows   197 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

ORTHOGRAPHICAL  AND    OTHER  ERRORS. 

Bad  Spelling   198 

Apostrophes   201 

Ignorance  or  Eccentricity  of  Employers   202 

Irregular  Spacing   203 

Judging  Distances   204 

Appendix. — White  Lead   205 

Fifteen  Plates  of  Alphabets,  etc  

Index  *   209 


Sign  Writing 

AND 

Glass  Embossing. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

It  is  curious  that  the  term  "  sign-writer  "  is  not  to  be 
found  in  any  encyclopaedia  or  dictionary,  ancient  or 
modern.  The  use  of  this  compound  is  undoubtedly 
quite  recent ;  but  this  would  hardly  account  for  its  omis- 
sion from  every  work  of  reference.  Probably  lexicog- 
raphers do  not  consider  it,  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  now 
employed,  to  be  strictly  appropriate,  inasmuch  as  (1)  a 
sign,  properly  so  called,  is  now  seldom  seen,  and  (2)  the 
painting  of  letters  on  buildings,  &c.,  can  hardly  be  called 
writing. 

Even  Kelly's  ponderous  "  Post  Office  London  Direc- 
tory does  not  deem  the  sign-writer  worthy  of  separate 
enumeration  in  its  list  of  trades.  Under  the  head  of 
"sign-painters" — a  class  of  workmen  almost  unknown 
in  the  present  day,  painted  signs  having  been  superseded 
by  written  ones — the  enquirer  is  told  to  ^'  8ee  Writers 
and  Grainers  f '  and  if  he  turn  as  directed,  he  will  find  a 
list  of  from  200  to  300  names  and  addresses,  included  in 
which  are  ticket  writers,  grainers,  decorators,  and  others 

(9) 


10  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


without  the  slightest  attempt  at  classification.  Sixty-nine 
years  ago,  when  the  "  London  Directory  "  first  made  its 
appearance,  there  might  have  been  some  difficulty  in 
making  a  distinction  between  sign-painters  and  sign- 
wrlters,  because  the  period  of  transition  from  one  to  the 
other  had  not  fully  passed  ;  but  that  the  large  body  of 
influential  art-workmen  now  engaged  in  sign-writing 
in  the  metropolis  should  still  be  neglected  in  so  import- 
ant a  publication  is  a  circumstance  that  seems  almost 
inexplicable. 

There  is  no  question  that  the  use  of  the  word  "  sign  " 
in  its  conjunction  with  the  art  of  "  writing "  is  quite 
modern.  A  sign  was  originally  hung  up  to  signify  or 
represent  a  particular  object  or  occurrence,  and  this  was 
not  written,  but  was  invariably  a  carving  or  a  pictorial 
representation.  The  most  common  instances  of  the  re- 
tention of  this  old  custom  amongst  us  are  to  be  found  in 
the  three  gilded  balls  of  the  pawnbroker ;  the  chequers 
of  the  publican  ;  the  twist  of  the  tobacconist ;  the  striped 
or  bandaged  pole  of  the  barber ;  the  fish  dangling  on  a 
fishing  rod,  to  attract  the  followers  of  Izaac  Walton  ;  the 
golden  canister  of  the  tea-dealer ;  and  the  hat  of  the  hat- 
ter. These  and  other  trade  emblems,  and  the  painting 
of  signs,  were  unquestionably  resorted  to  in  the  first  in- 
stance as  the  only  practicable  means  of  identification 
among  people  utterly  ignorant  of  the  mysteries  of  writing 
and  reading.  This  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  through- 
out the  country  the  sign  of  an  inn  or  place  of  business 
was,  in  many  instances^  selected  as  a  play  upon  the  name 
of  the  head  of  the  house ;  so  that  it  conveyed  a  sort  of 
double  meaning,  indicating  at  once  the  name  of  the  house 
and  of  its  occupier.  Thus,  Jane  Hart  kept  the  Heart" 
in  Southwark ;  John  Salmon,  in  Spitalfields,  kept  the 
"Salmon  and  Bowl;"  William  Woodcock,  a  bookseller 
in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  represented  his  house  by  means 
of  a  cock  standing  on  a  bundle  of  wood ;  Jane  Keye,  in 
Bloomsbury  Market,  styled  her  house  the  "  Key ; "  John 


INTEODUCTOEY. 


11 


Bell,  in  Wood  Street,  adopted  the  sign  of  the  "Bell;" 
and  similar  instances  might  be  multiplied  to  any  extent. 
All  these  were  signs,  distinguishing  marks,  and  were 
expressed  by  means  of  carved  or  pictorial  representa- 
tions, the  meaning  of  which  could  be  easily  understood 
without  the  aid  of  writing. 

It  may  here  be  mentioned,  incidentally,  that  the 
tokens  or  symbols  used  by  pilgrims  who  had  visited  the 
shrines  of  saints  and  martyrs  were  also  technically  termed 
"signs."  These  were  generally  made  either  of  lead  or 
pewter,  sometimes  of  silver,  and  were  sewn  on  the  hat  or 
garments,  or  worn  as  brooches ;  and  by  means  of  these 
"  signs,"  and  the  devices  upon  them,  which  indicated 
the  particular  place  visited,  the  pilgrim  was  recognized. 
The  author  of  the  "  Supplement "  to  the  "  Cantei'bury 
Tales"  speaks  of  these  "signs"  being  purchased  by 
Chaucer's  pilgrims  on  the  occasion  of  their  visit  to 
Canterbury.    He  says  : — 

"Then,  as  manere  and  custom  is,  signes  there  they  bought 
and  again  : — • 

**  They  set  theiv  signes  upon  their  hedes,  and  some  oppon  their 
capp. ' ' 

In  all  probability  Hooker  had  in  mind  these  "signes" 
as  well  as  those  of  the  streets  when  he  said  that  they 
"  must  resemble  the  things  they  signify." 

It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  the  old  trade  signs  were 
often  very  inartistic  and  badly  execaited.  The  cost  of 
painting  a  good  sign  must  have  been  so  great  that  only 
a  few  of  the  keepers  of  the  principal  inns  and  places  of 
business  would  feel  themselves  justified  in  incurring  it. 
Dry  den,  in  his  translation  of  Du  Fresnoy's  "Art  of 
Painting,"  alludes  to  the  want  of  skill  of  the  "sign-post 
dawbers  "  of  his  day.  And  in  Henry  VI.,  we  meet  with 
the  expression  "  an  ale-house'  paltry  sign."  In  fact,  the 
signs  of  the  olden  times  appear  to  have  afforded  an  infinite 


12 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


amount  of  amusement  to  the  wits,  in  consequence  of  their 
inherent  badness,  and  the  inconsistencies  which  they 
presented. 

Some  few  signs,  however,  were  painted  by  artists  of 
eminence,  among  the  more/ecent  of  whom  may  be  named 
Hogarth,  Richard  Wilson,  George  Morland,  Ibbetson, 
Sir  Charles  Ross,  David  Cox,  Harlow,  and  Old  Crome. 
Of  course,  these  famous  artists  did  not  paint  signs  profes- 
sionally. They  did  it,  perhaps,  only  on  one  or  two  noted 
occasions,  either  as  a  mark  of  respect  to  those  who  were 
fortunate  enough  to  secure  tiieir  services,  or  in  order  to 
wipe  off  their  tavern  score,  or,  possibly,  to  keep  the  wolf 
from  the  door  during  temporary  distress.  We  recollect 
an  artist  of  some  celebrity  who,  a  few  years  ago,  painted, 
a  sign  for  a  public-house.  On  this  becoming  known  to 
some  of  his  patrons,  one  of  them — a  noble  lord — thought 
it  terribly  infra  dig.y  and  severely  called  him  to  account 
for  thus  prostituting  his  talents.  Had  the  remonstrance 
come  from  any  other  quarter,  it  would  no  doubt  have 
been  resented;  but,  as  it  was,  the  artist  was  obliged  to 
content  himself  with  an  appeal  ad  misericordiam — 
simply  ejaculating  in  response,  The  wolf!  my  lord; 
the  wolf 

We  have  doubtless  all  laughed  at  the  expedient  of  the 
schoolboy  who,  having  drawn  a  clumsy  outline  of  a 
house,  thought  it  necessary  to  ensure  its  identity  by 
writing  underneath  it,  "  This  is  a  house.'^  In  the  early 
days  of  signs,  the  sign-painter  could  have  recourse  to  no 
such  aid  to  his  genius,  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that, 
long  after  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  the  great  mass  of 
the  people,  even  of  the  better  class,  were  utterly  ignorant 
of  the  art  of  writing,  and  comparatively  few  were  able 
to  read.  Mr.  J.  Camden  Hotten,  in  his  admirable 
"  History  of  Sign-boards,"  says,  "  It  is  a  well-knowa 
and  established  fact  that  the  London  signs  of  old  had  nt 
inscriptions  under  them.'^  This  would  be  so,  because  even 
if  the  painter,  or    dawber,'^  as  he  Was  more  commonly 


INTKODUCTORY. 


13 


called,  had  sufficient  knowledge  to  enable  him  to  write 
underneath  his  painting  the  name  of  the  object  or  event 
it  was  intended  to  represent,  there  would  have  been  this 
disadvantage,  that  it  would  not  be  understood  by  a  tithe 
of  the  people,  to  whom,  indeed,  it  might  be  a  greater 
puzzle  than  the  ill- conceived  and  badly-limned  painting 
itself.  Hence,  in  those  days  it  was  an  absolute  necessity 
that  the  sign  should,  as  far  as  possible,  resemble  the 
thing  it  signified  ;  since,  if  either  through  unskilfulness 
or  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  painter,  the  spectator 
was  left  in  doubt  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  thing  signified, 
the  whole  intention  of  the  representation  would  have 
been  defeated. 

There  seems  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  sign  itself 
was  not  always  the  sole  guide  to  a  stranger.  Let  it  be 
remembered  that,  even  a  century  ago,  it  was  an  unusual 
occurrence  for  a  family  to  emigrate  from  one  town  to 
another.  The  difficulties  incident  to  locomotion  were  so 
great  that  generations  of  families  passed  away  without 
having  travelled  more  than  a  dozen  miles  from  the  places 
of  their  birth  ;  and,  consequently,  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages being  sparsely  populated,  the  residents  in  them 
had  an  exact  traditional  knowledge  of  all  the  houses 
within  the  narrow  bounds  in  which  they  passed  their  ex- 
istence. It  is  quite  possible,  therefore,  that  many  of  the 
inns  in  small  towns  exhibited  no  specific  ^^sign"  at  all — 
or  that,  if  they  did,  it  had  become  so  dilapidated  that 
identification  would  have  been  impossible, — but  depend- 
ed upon  the  oral  transmission  of  their  names  from  one 
generation  to  another.  So  that  if  a  traveller  found  him- 
self in  a  strange  neighborhood,  he  would  not  rely  so 
much  upon  his  own  visual  powers  or  the  genius  of  the 
sign-painter,  as  upon  the  guidance  of  the  inhabitants  in 
finding  the  particular  house  he  required. 

In  London,  however,  signs  must  have  been  all-impor- 
tant, owing  to  its  large  and  rapidly-increasing  dimen- 
sions. The  old-fashioned  projecting  swing  signs  were 
2 


14  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


.  not  only  numerous,  but  obtrusive  in  their  gautly  attrac- 
tiveness. In  Cliarles's  time,  it  was  no  uncommon  thing 
for  opposite  neighbors,  by  a  sort  of  mutual  consent,  to 
suspend  a  chain  or  bar  across  the  street,  on  which  they 
hung  their  signs,  after  the  fashion  of  the  old  Paris  lamps  ; 
but  for  some  reason  or  other  these  were  abolished  by  the 
Act  of  7th  Charles  II.,  which  directs  that  in  all  the 
streets  no  sign-posts  shall  hang  across,  but  that  the  signs 
shall  be  fixed  against  the  balconies,  or  some  convenient 
part  of  the  side  of  the  house.'^*  Subsequently,  this 
privilege  was  abused,  and  in  many  cases  the  enormous 
signs  projected  nearly  across  the  street,  and,  besides 
stopping  the  free  circulation  of  air  and  keeping  out  the 
health-giving  sunshine,  they  were  not  unfrequently  the 
cause  of  accident.  The  newspapers  of  the  early  part  of 
the  last  century  contained  many  accounts  of  accidents, 
sometimes  fatal  in  their  results,  through  the  falling  of 
sign-boards  on  the  heads  of  pedestrians.  So  dangerous, 
indeed,  did  the  streets  become  through  these  overhang- 
ing signs,  that  in  1718  the  Court  of  Common  Council 
,  appointed  a  committee  to  consider  the  advisability  of 
ordering  their  removal,  and  though  nothing  definite  ap- 
])ears  to  have  come  of  their  deliberations  at  the  time,  yet 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century  an  edict  went  forth 
that  in  the  city  all  signs  w^ere  to  be  taken  down  and 
affixed  to  the  front  of  the  houses,  flat  against  the  wall. 
This  had  the  effect  of  remedying  a  nuisance  which  at 
this  time  had  become  almost  intolerable,  and  to  which 
the  poet  Gay  refers  in  his  ^'Trivia;  or,  the  Art  of 
\¥alking  the  Streets  of  London 

 "the  swinging  signs  your  ears  offend 

With  creaking  noise." 

As  showing  the  high  estimation  in  which  signs  were  held, 
and  their  utility  in  those*  days,  this  further  reference  to 
them  may  be  cited  from  the  same  work  : 


*  Journal  of  Archaeologicai  Association,  vol.  ix.,  p.  42. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


15 


**  If  drawn  by  biis'ness  to  a  street  unknown, 

Let  the  sworn  porter  point  thee  through  the  town  ; 
Be  sure  observe  the  signs,  for  signs  remain. 
Like  faithful  landmarks  to  the  walking  train." 

Before  the  introduction  of  inscriptions  on  sign-boards, 
and  when  the  houses  were  not  numbered,  the  trades- 
people were  driven  to  many  curious  shifts  to  make  known 
the  exact  whereabouts  of  their  places  of  business.  At 
this  distance  of  time,  the  following  advertisement,  taken 
from  a  newspaper  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century, 
is  interesting :  Dr.  James  Tilbough,  a  German  doctor, 
states  that  he  liveth  at  present  over  against  the  New 
Exchange  in  Bedford  Street,  at  the  sign  of  the  ^  Peacock,' 
wdiere  you  will  see  at  night  two  candles  burning  within 
one  of  the  chambers  before  the  balcony,  and  a  lanthorn 
with  a  candle  in  it  upon  the  balcony,  where  he  may  be 
spoke  withal  alone,  from  8  in  the  morning  till  10  at  night.'' 
This  description  is  unusually  elaborate.  Possibly  the 
doctor  was  a  migratory  bird,  and  had  lived  at  many 
different  parts  of  the  town.  The  at  present"  would 
rather  strengthen  this  idea.  Then  again,  Faithorne,  the 
engraver,  gives  his  address,  in  1691,  at  the  ''sign  of  the 
'  Ship,'  next  door  to  the  '  Drake,'  opposite  to  the  '  Pal- 
grave  Head'  tavern,  without  Temple  Bar."  One  more 
example.  In  the  Spectator  of  the  29th  of  April,  1718, 
the  following  advertisement  appears:  ''In  George 
Street,  in  York  Buildings,  in  the  Strand,  the  third  house 
on  the  right  hand,  number  3  being  over  the  door,  may 
be  had  money  lent,  upon  plate  or  jewels,  at  reasonable 
rates."  The  "  number  3  over  the  door"  in  this  an- 
nouncement shows  that  in  1718  the  plan  of  numbering 
houses  had  come  into  vogue.  The  introduction  of  tiiis 
practice  took  place  just  before  the  year  1708,  for  in  that 
year  Hatton  published  his  "  New  View  of  London," 
wherein  he  mentions  as  a  remarkable  circumstance  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  Prescott  Street,  Goodman's 
Fields,  that,  "  instead  of  signs,  the  houses  are  distin- 


16  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


guished  by  numbers,  as  the  staircases  in  the  Inns  of 
Court  and  Chancery." 

Now,  as  the  term  "  sign"  has  changed  its  signification, 
so  the  word  ^'  writing,"  as  applied  to  the  work  of  the 
sign-writer,  has  also  come  to  possesss  a  meaning  very  dif- 
ferent from  that  which  it  originally  had.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  point  out  that  the  words  wdiich,  in  the  lead- 
ing languages  of  Europe,  express  the  art  of  writing,  pro- 
perly denote  engraving.  All  the  records  of  the  ancients 
which  were  intended  to  be  permanent  were  engraved  in 
wood  or  stone ;  and  temporary  memoranda  were  im- 
pressed with  a  metal  stylus  on  waxed  tablets  of  ivory  or 
wood,  called  table-books,  and  were,  therefore,  capable 
of  being  obliterated.  Various  vegetable  and  animal 
substances  were  also  used  for  this  purpose ;  but,  what- 
ever the  material  employed,  the  records  were  always 
impressed  by  means  of  some  hard  material.  The  use 
of  table-books  was  continued  long  after  more  portable 
and  tractable  substitutes  had  been  introduced.  Even  in 
Chaucer's  time  they  were  not  unknown  in  England, 
for  he  evidently  describes  one  in  his  "  Sompnour's 
Tale."    The  friar  is  provided  with  : 

"A  pair  of  tables,  all  of  ivory, 
And  a  pointed  [style],  ypolislied  fetislily  [neatly], 
And  wrote  always  the  names  as  he  stood 
Of  all  folk  that  gave  them  any  good." 

And,  later  still,  the  Archbishop  of  York,  in  Henry  IV., 
second  part,  act  4,  is  made  to  say  : 

"  And  therefore  Avill  he  wipe  his  tables  clean, 
And  keep  no  tell-tale  to  his  memory," 

But  admitting,  as  we  are  bound  to  do,  that  the  word 
writing,"  in  its  ordinary  signification,  is  accurate  lus 
applied  to  the  productions  of  the  pen,  which  superseded 
the  old  stylus,  still  it  is  a  somewhat  different  matter  as 
applied  to  the  formation  of  alphabetic  characters  as  at 
present  practised  by  tlie  sign-writer,  who,  in  reality,  is 
not  an  engraver  or  a  writer,  but  an  artist  in  the  draw- 
ing and  painting  of  letters. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


17 


Whetlicr.  however,  this  may  or  may  not  account  for 
the  omission  of  the  sign-writer  from  every  work  of  refer- 
ence, it  is  now  too  late  to  cavil  about  terms.  Sign-writ* 
ing  has  become  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  useful  of 
the  industrial  arts,  and  will,  no  doubt,  in  due  course 
occupy  its  proper  position  in  all  encyclopsedias  and 
treatises  on  the  arts  and  sciences. 

It  would  seem  that  the  art  of  sign-writing ,  as  it  is  now 
called,  is  of  considerable  antiquity.  It  probably  origi- 
nated with  the  custom  of  writing  or  painting  texts  and 
inscriptions  in  churches  and  other  religious  edifices, 
which  was  resorted  to  at  a  very  early  period.  There  is 
ample  evidence  that  this  practice  is  almost  coeval  with 
the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  itself.  The  erudite 
Bingham,  in  his  ^'  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,^' 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  497,  498,  devotes  an  entire  section  to  this 
subject,  in  the  course  of  which,  speaking  of  the  ancient 
churches,  he  observes: — "Another  ornament,  which 
served  for  use  as  well  as  beauty,  was  their  comely  and 
pertinent  inscriptions,  many  of  which  are  preserved  and 
still  to  be  read  in  ancient  authors.  These  were  of  two 
sorts  :  some  taken  out  of  Scripture ;  others,  useful  com- 
positions of  men's  own  inventing.  The  walls  of  the 
church  seem  conniionly  to  have  had  some  select  portions 
of  Scripture  written  upon  them,  containing  some  proper 
admonition  and  instruction  for  all  in  general,  or  else 
more  peculiar  to  that  order  of  persons  who  had  their 
station  in  such  a  particular  part  or  division  of  the  church. 
Thus  I  have  observed  before  out  of  St.  Ambrose,  that 
the  place  of  the  virgins  had  that  text  of  St.  Paul  some- 
times written  by  it  on  the  walls  :  '  There  is  dilference  be- 
.  tween  a  wife  and  a  virgin,'  &c.  And  by  this  one  place, 
we  may  judge  how  other  parts  of  the  church  were  em- 
bellished and  adorned  with  proper  instructions  out  of 
the  Holy  Scripture.''  This  learned  divine  also  quotes 
from  Paulinus  and  other  ancient  authors  to  show  that 
incriptions  of  'Miumane"  composition  were  written  on 
2* 


18 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


the  several  parts  and  utensils  of  many  churches ;  ^lA 
he  repeats  two  short  Latin  distichs,  written  over  tlie 
doors  of  the  church  :  one  on  the  outside,  exhorting  men 
to  enter  the  church  with  pure  and  peaceable  hearts ;  and 
the  other  on  the  inner  side  of  the  doors,  requiring  men 
when  they  go  out  of  church  with  their  bodies,  to 
leave  at  least  their  hearts  behind  them.  "  Many  other 
like  inscriptions,''  he  adds,  "  may  be  seen  in  Sidonius 
Apollinaris  and  other  writers  of  that  age." 

In  the  ecclesiastical  edifices  of  this  country,  inscrip- 
tions were  originally  painted  upon  the  walls,  and  on  the 
rood  loft  or  screen,  and  occasionally  upon  the  windows  j 
but  they  were  always  used  in  the  first  instance  as  subor- 
dinate to  more  elaborate  decorations.  Subsequently, 
however,  these  inscriptive  texts,  or  ^'  Scriptures,''  as  they 
were  generally  called,  assumed  greater  prominence,  and 
were  employed  not  merely  in  connection  with  or  as 
subordinate  to  other  paintings,  but  formed  of  themselves 
the  sole  and  chief  embellishments;  and  ultimately  this 
custom  of  using  them  appears  to  have  extended  itself  to 
buildino^s  other  than  those  of  a  relii^ious  character. 

The  phylacteries,  or  twisted  scrolls,  held  by  saints, 
angels,  or  demons  (the  earliest  form  in  which  theelucida- 
tor};  texts  and  other  inscriptions  first  appeared  in  English 
architecture),  date  from  about  the  year  1087.  In  an 
illuminated  Saxon  MS.  of  the  tenth  century,  the  Evil 
Spirit  is  represented  with  a  scroll  bearing  the  word 
"  Diabolis;  "  and  shortly  after  this  period  the  inscriptive 
scroll  l)egan  to  be  commonly  applied  in  church  decora- 
tions. These  scrolls  or  labels  were  sometimes  colored, 
and  bore  the  letters  in  white  or  gold  ;  but  they  were 
more  frequently  painted  white,  with  the  inscription  in 
black  or  color.  They  seem  to  have  been  adopted  in  the 
first  instance  as  a  means  of  leading  to  the  identification 
of  the  different  figures  represented,  and  were  conse- 
quently merely  accessorial  to  the  general  design,  what- 
ever that  might  be. 


'INTRODUCTORY. 


19 


In  the  thirteenth  century,  the  adoption  of  the  labelled 
text  and  other  forms  of  painted  inscriptive  decoration 
became  general,  and  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies they  formed  an  important  feature  in  ecclesiastical 
adornment.  About  the  year  1397,  Lord  Berkeley,  had 
the  Apocalypse  in  Latin  and  French  inscribed  on  the 
walls  of  his  chapel  at  Berkeley  ;  and  about  the  year 
1472,  Prior  Sellinge  painted  the  walls  of  the  southern 
walk  of  the  cloister  at  Canterbury  with  texts  of  Scripture. 
The  walls  of  the  Clapton  Chapel,  Long  Melford,  are  also 
painted  with  Scriptural  texts,  as  are  those  of  the  chapel 
ofMoreton  Hall,  in  Cheshire.  On  the  cornice  of  the 
screen  which  now  forms  part  of  the  Bourchier  monu- 
ment, in  the  chapel  of  St.  Paul,  at  Westminster,  a  por- 
tion of  the  Non  Nobis,^^  or  115th  Psalai,  is  still  per- 
fect. The  letters  are  gold  on  a  ground  of  blue,  and  the 
words  are  separated  by  shields  and  heraldic  devices. 
Tiie  hollow  of  the  cornice  in  the  hall  at  Croydon  Palace 
has  the  Scripture,  ^'Nosce  teipsum  — "Know  thyself 
— painted  in  wliite  letters  on  a  blue  ground."^' 

The  use  of  texts  of  Scripture  is  enjoined  by  a  passage 
in  the  eighty-second  canon,  which  appoints  "  that  the 
Ten  Commandments  be  set  up  on  the  east  end  of  every 
church  and  chapel,  where  the  people  may  best  see  and 
read  the  same,  and  other  chosen  sentences  written  upon 
the  walls  of  the  said  churches  and  chapels,  in  places 
convenient." 

During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  the 
name  of  our  blessed  Lord,  in  monograms,  initials,  and 
cy{)hers,  was  very  frequently  introduced  into  ecclesiastical 
decoration.  The  name  of  Jesus  was  commonly  con- 
tracted into  I.  H.  C,  and  used  as  a  devotional  emblem. 
This  form  is  said  to  have  been  "  invented  "  by  St.  Ber- 


*  For  some  of  the  foregoing  particulars  we  are  indebted  to  the 
excellent  work  of  Mr.  Blackburne  on  "  English  Architecture  iu 
the  Middle  Ages." 


20  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


nardin,  of  Sienna,  about  the  year  1400.  Several  ex- 
cellent specimens  of  the  ancient  form  of  this  monogram 
are  still  preserved.  Almost  coeval  with,  or  rather  latet 
than,  the  use  of  this  monogram,  or  nomal  abbreviation, 
the  letters  A.  M.  (Ave  Maria),  M.  A.  (Maria),  M.  R. 
(Maria  Regina),  became  a  common  form  of  ornamenta- 
tion in  churches.  The  letter  M  was  frequently  used  by 
itself,  and  was  often  most  tastefully  designed.  Short 
ejaculatory  prayers  also  formed  favorite  decorations. 
Amongst  these  may  be  cited  the  iBVUm  *  IBtXiB  *  ^ttteit 
on  a  painted  screen  at  Worstead,  Norfolk ;  the  JilfS- 

mre  *  ^obis  *  Jhesu  *  Sal\)ator  formerly  to  be 

seen  on  the  back  of  the  choir  stalls  at  Canterbury;  and 
the  Sl^U  *  Ul0VCf  to  be  met  with  in  several  places. 

But,  as  we  before  stated,  inscrij)tive  texts  were  not 
confined  to  religious  edifices  merely.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  customary  to  cover  the  walls  of  public  and 
private  buildings  with  moral  or  religious  sentences,  of  an 
appropriate  character.  Henry  III.,  who  manifested 
great  regard  for  the  fine  arts,  and  entertained  and  en- 
couraged their  professors,  frequently  directed  his  palaces 
and  chapels  to  be  painted  with  English  historical  sub- 
jects, and  adorned  w^ith  sculpture,  and  ordered  inscrip- 
tions to  be  introduced  in  several  instances.  By  a 'man- 
damus of  the  20th  of  this  king,  the  king's  treasurer  is 
commanded  to  have  the  Great  Chamber  at  Westminster 
painted  a  good  green  color,  according  to  the  fashion  of 
the  curtain  in  the  great  gable  of  the  same  chamber,  and 
that  the  motto, — "  Ke  ne  dune  ke  ne  tine  ne  pret  ke 
desire,'^* — be  painted  on  the  wall — an  appropriate  text 
lor  the  place  of  hospitality.  A  Latin  rendering  of  the 
same  motto  was  also  ordered  to  be  painted  on  the  hall 
of  the  palace  of  Woodstock,  in  the  year  1248.  At  a 
later  period,  Chaucer  refers  to  the  practice, — 


*  "  Who  gives  not  of  what  he  has,  shall  not  have  what  he  de- 
sires." 


INTRODUCTORY. 


21 


"  A.nd  sothe  to  saine  my  chambre  was 
Ful  wel  depainted  


And  all  the  walls  with  colours  fine 
Were  paint,  botlie  texte  and  glose, 
And  all  the  Romaunt  of  the  Rose." 

The  author  of  "  Piers  Ploughman's  Crede,"  who,  it  is 
supposed,  wrote  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Richard  II., 
mentions  the  existence  of  writing  and  heraldic  devices 
on  windows : 

*'  Wyde  wyndowes  ywrought 
Ywryten  ful  thikke, 
Shynen  with  shapen  sheldes 
To  shewen  aboute, 
With  merkes  of  merehauntes 
Ymeddled*  betwene." 

Some  of  the  inscriptions,  or  "  posies/'  as  they  were 
called,  were  very  curious.  Redding,  in  his  history  of 
Cornwall,  mentions  that  the  following  lines,  illustrative 
of  "  Perseverance''  and  "  Niggardliness,"  are  painted 
on  the  panels  of  the  wainscoting,  in  the  room  in  Pen- 
gerswick  Tower,  Cornwall : 

**  What  thing  is  harder  than  the  rocke  ? 

What  softer  is  than  water  cleere  ? 
Yet  will  the  same  with  often  droppe, 

The  hard  rock  perce,  as  doth  a  spere : 
Even  so,  nothing  so  hard  to  attayne, 
But  may  be  hadd  with  labour  and  paine." 


"  Behold  this  asse,  wiche  laden  ys 

AVith  riches,  plcntye,  and  with  meat, 
And  yet  thereof  no  pleasure  bathe, 

But  thystells,  hard  and  rough,  doth  eat : 
In  like  case  ys  the  rich  niggarde. 
Which  hath  inoughe,  and  lyveth  full  hard.'* 

According  to  Blackburne,  this  practice,  as  originally  ex- 


*  ^^Y-msddled  is  mixed  ]  the  'marks'  of  merchants  are  put  in 
opposition  to  the  'shapen  shields,'  because  merchants  had  no 
coats  of  arms." — Specimens  of  the  Early  English  Foels,  by  George 
Ellis,  Esq.,  vol.  i.,  p.  163. 


22  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


ilibited,  seems  to  have  continued  so  late  as  the  time  of 
Archbishop  Williams  (1639),  who  caused  the  cloisters  at 
Buckden  ^'to  be  fairly  pargetted,  and  beautified  with 
comely  copartments  and  inscriptions  of  wise  counsels 
and  sentences;'^  and  it  prevailed,  in  a  modified  form,  to 
a  much  more  recent  period. 

The  practice  of  writing  inscriptions  in  religious  edi- 
fices in  all  probability  received  much  encouragement 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  YI.,  when  the  custom  of 
covering  the  interior  walls  of  churches  with  "  Scrip- 
tures'^ was  at  its  climax.  It  is  a  well-established  fact 
that  antecedent  to  this  reign  mural  paintings  ornamented 
even  the  poorest  and  most  insignificant  parish  churches, 
as  well  as  stately  cathedrals  and  magnificent  abbeys — 
the  inscriptive  i^^exts,  with  but  few  exceptions,  being  sub- 
ordinated thereto ;  but  owing  to  an  alteration  in  the  re- 
ligious feeling  of  the  country,  under  the  reign  of 
Edward  YL,  a  devoted  Protestant,  many  of  these 
paintings  were  obliterated  with  whitewash,  texts^  of 
Scripture  being  substituted  ;  and  it  would  seem  that 
successive  layers  of  this  material  were  applied  at  differ- 
ent times,  so  as  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  paintings,  not 
only  from  the  walls  but  also  from  the  recollection  of  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  themselves.  That  the  defacing 
of  paintings  and  the  writing  of  Scripture  texts  on  the 
walls  greatly  obtained  in  this  reign  may  be  seen  by  the 
numerous  records  extant,  of  which  the  following,  under 
the  date  of  1550,  in  the  churchwardens'  accounts  of  St. 
Mary's  the  Great,  Cambridge,  may  be  taken  as  a  fair 
sample : 

For  makyng  the  wall  where  Saynt  George  stood 
in  the  chyrche  vj'** 

It.  paid  for  wythynge  y'  chyrch   xx'  iij**- 

It.  payd  for  wryghtynge  of  the  chyrch  walla 
with  Scriptures  iiij"""  iij'  iiy  '' 


INTRODUCTORY. 


23 


It  would  be  very  interesting  to  know  what  quantity  of 
writing  was  introduced  for  the  sum  of  c£4  3s.  4d., 
which  is  equivalent  to  at  least  £40  in  present  money.* 
This  large  item  would  lead  one  to  suppose  that  the  texts 
were  executed  by  some  first-class  master,  and  in  the  best 
style  of  art.  But,  unfortunately,  this  point  cannot  now 
be  settled,  for,  as  illustrative  of  the  transitoriness  of  mun- 
dane affairs,  Edward  VI.  succumbed  to  consumption, 
and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  Queen  Mary,  a 
zealous  Catholic,  and  accordingly,  the  church  texts,  em- 
blematical of  Protestantism,  were  obliterated,  and  Ro- 
man Catholicism,  outwardly  at  all  events,  again  reigned 
supreme.  In  1553,  shortly  after  the  accession  of  Mary, 
the  following  entry  occurs  in  the  churchwardens' 
accounts  of  St.  Mary's  the  Great,  already  quoted  : 

"Payd  to  Barnes  for  mendyng  the  rode  and  over  the  alter  in 
the  chapell,  and  for  washing  oute  the  Scriptures^  4s.  4d." 


*  A  very  different  amount  is  charged  in  the  churchwardens' 
accounts  of  St.  Helen's,  Abingdon,  under  date  1561,  as  witness 
the  following  items,  published  in  the  *' Arch[Eologia,"  vol.  i  : 

"To  the  carpenter  and  others  for  taking  down  the  roode 
lofte  and  stopping  the  holes  in  the  wall  where  the  joices 
stoode,  15s.  8d. 

"  To  the  peynter,  for  roriting  the  Scripture  whore  the  roode 
lofte  stood,  and  overthwarte  tlie  same  isle,  3s.  4d." 

The  scale  of  wages  paid  to  artificers  and  laborers  at  this  period 
may  be  gathered  from  "  The  Booke  for  a  Justice  of  Peace,"  1559, 
wherein  it  is  laid  down  that  "  none  artificer  hereafter  named  take 
no  more  nor  greatter  wages  than  hereafter  is  limitted, — tliat  is  to 
say,  a  free  mason,  maister  carpenter,  rough  mason,  nor  ioyner, 
from  Easter  to  Michelmas,  every  of  them  vj  for  the  day  without 
meate  and  drinke,  and  with  meate  and  drinke  iiij  "  In  an  ac- 
count of  the  5th  of  Edward  VI.,  1551,  is  a  charge  for  painters 
■working  under  Anthony  Toto,  serjeant-painter,  in  preparing  a 
temporary  banqueting  house  in  Hyde  Park  for  the  entertainment 
of  'Uhe  Marshall  St.  Andrew,"  from  which  it  appears  that  the 
men  were  paid  from  5d.  to  15d.  per  day  ;  and  the  serjeant-painter 
himself  had  a  "reward  of  £2  13s.  4d.  towards  his  pains  and  charges 
m  setting  forward  all  the  painters'  work." 


24 


SIGN  WETTING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


In  the  parish  books  of  St.  Benet's,  Gracechurch  Street, 
London,  which  was  rebuilt  by  Wren  after  the  Great 
Fire,  and  which  has  just  been  demolished  to  make  room 
for  City  improvements,  are  some  curious  entries  of  pay- 
ments on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary :  and  amongst 
them  are  the  following : — 

"  To  a  plasterer  for  washing  oute  and  defacing  of  the 
Scriptures,  3s.  4d. 

"  Maldng  the  Roode,  with  Mary  and  John,  £6.' 

and  then,  subsequently, 

"Pulling  down  the  same  Roode,  1st  year  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, 4s.  2d. 

"  Pulling  down  the  altar  and  John,  2s.  4d." 

Numerous  inscriptions  in  churches  which  had  long 
been  obliterated  have  been  discovered  at  different  times, 
and  archaeologists  are  unanimous  in  fixing  as  their  date 
the  reign  of  Ed  ward  VI.,  inasmuch  as  beneath  these  are 
invariably  found  traces  of  mural  paintings,  which  it  is 
supposed  the  texts  superseded.  A  few  years  ago  a.series 
of  mural  paintings  was  discovered  under  successive  cov- 
erings of  whitewash  in  St.  John's  Church,  Winchester  ; 
and  in  an  account  of  these  hi  the  Journal  of  the  Archceo- 
logical  Association,  vol.  ix,  p.  11,  if  is  stated  that  "the 
first  portion  discovered  was  the  figure  of  St.  Andrew. 
Near  the  feet  of  this  figure  were  observed  faint  traces 
of  letters,  which  looked  at  first  almost  coeval  with  the 
figure ;  but,  on  a  closer  examinatio'i,  proved  to  be  some 
remains  of  a  text  or  prayer,  not  later  than  the  time  of 
Edward  VL" 

We  have  thus  the  fact  clearly  established  that  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  writing  of  inscrip- 
tions in  churches  was  a  common  practice.  It  may  have 
been,  and  probably  was,  the  case  that  the  writing  on  the 
walls  of  the  pi'incipal  churches  at  this  time  was  entrusted 
to  the  hands  of  some  of  the  talented  foreigners  who  had 
l)oon  induced  to  visit  this  country  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  who  did  so  much  for  the  revival  of 


INTRODUCTORY. 


25 


classical  architecture  and  tlie  arts  generally.  It  may  be 
also  tliat  the  splendid  book-illuminators  of  this  period 
employed  themselves  in  writing  on  the  walls  of  churches, 
or,  at  least,  in  designing  models  for  those  who  did  so, 
and  thus  gave  a  stimulus  to  this  branch  of  industrial  art; 
and  that,  when  this  practice  fell  into  disuse,  and  the  art 
of  boolc  illumination,  owing  to  the  introduction  of  the 
printing-press,  declined,  writing  was  not  thought  of 
sufficient  importance,  or  there  was  not  enough  demand 
for  it,  to  encourage  painters  to  devote  themselves  to  it 
entirely. 

That  the  painting  of  inscriptions  and  other  forms  of 
decoration  was  entrusted  to,  and  performed  by,  the 
leading  artists  of  this  period  is  not  a  mere  matter  of  con- 
jecture. So  recently  as  the  seventeenth  century  there 
was  not  that  minute  division  of  labor  which  obtained  at 
a  later  period,  and  which  is  now  so  fully  developed. 
Artists  were  not  content  with  merely  one  branch  of  art. 
Tlie  work  of  the  sculptor,  painter,  and  architect  was  often 
performed  by  one  and  the  same  individual.  In  one 
sense,  this  was  a  misfortune,  the  arts  becoming  weakened 
through  the  innovations  introduced  into  the  different 
branches  into  which  they  are  divided.  It  was  thouglit 
that  a  clever  sculptor  must  be  a  clever  architect,  or  that 
a  good  designer  must  be  capable  of  anything  within  the 
domain  of  sculpture,  painting,  or  architecture.  But 
thougli  the  higher  forms  of  art  were  not,  as  a  rule,  bene- 
fited by  this  diversity  of  employment,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  industrial  art  was  often  elevated  through  the 
attention  given  to  it  by  the  superior  minds  of  the  great 
jnasters.  They  brought  to  bear  upon  their  work  an 
intelligent  appreciation  of  which  the  ordinary  routine 
workman  of  the  present  day  is  totally  incapable.  To 
this  fact  must  be  attributed  the  production  of  those 
incomparable  monograms  and  devices  which  at  one  time 
adorned  our  public  edifices,  particularly  those  devoted  to 
ecclesiastical  purposes,  some  of  which  are  happily  still 
3 


26 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


preserved  in  the  national  archives.  Decorative  or  in- 
scriptive painting  was  not  deemed  beneath  the  dignity 
of  the  most  favored  artists,  who  appear  to  have  under- 
taken any  kind  of  work  requiring  the  exercise  of  refined 
taste.  We  have  it  on  the  authority  of  John  de  Critz, 
serjeant-painter  of  Charles  I.,  that  he  painted  and  gilded 
His  Majesty^s  barge,  and  did  other  work  of  an  equally 
inartistic  and  ordinary  character.  In  a  memorandum  in 
liis  own  hand-writing,  De  Critz  has  bequeathed  to  all 
future  generations  of  painters,  for  the  comfort  and  edi- 
fication of  the  profession,  the  fact  that  he  did  not  rebel 
against  the  execution  of  work  which  now-a-days  would 
be  thought  beneath  the  notice  of  any  third-rate  painter. 
The  following  bill  of  his,  as  given  in  Walpole's  "Anec- 
dotes," shows  conclusively  the  sort  of  employment  in 
which  he  engaged  himself: 

*'For  several  times  oyling  and  layinf^  with  fayre  white  a  stone 
for  a  sundyall  opposite  to  some  part  of  the  l^ing  and  queen's 
lodgings,  tiie  lines  thereof  being  drawn  in  severall  colours,  the 
letters  directing  to  the  howers  gnilded  with  fine  gould,  whereon 
the  number  and  figures  specifying  the  planetary  liowcrs  are  in- 
scribed;  likewise  certain  letters  drawne  in  black  informing  in 
what  part  of  the  compasse  the  sun  at  any  time  there  shining  shall 
be  resident ;  the  whole  worke  being  circumferenced  with  a  frett 
painted  in  a  manner  of  a  stone  one,  the  compleat  measure  of  the 
whole  being  six  foote." 

The  following  account  is  also  in  the  handwriting  of 
De  Critz: 

"  John  de  Critz  demandeth  allowance  for  these  parcclls  of 
Worke  following,  viz  :— For  repayreing,  refreshing,  washing,  and 
varnishing  the  Whole  of  his  Majesty's  privy  barge,  and  mending 
with  fine  gould  and  faire  colors  many  and  divers  parts  thereof, 
as  about  the  chaire  of  state,  the  doores,  and  most  of  the  antiques 
about  the  windowes,  that  had  been  galled  and  defaced,  the  two 
figures  at  the  entrance  being  most  new  coloured  and  painted,  the 
Mercury  and  the  lions  that  are  fixed  at  the  sternes  of  this  and  the 
row  barge  being  in  several  places  repayred  both  with  gould  and 
coloms,  as  also  the  taffarils  on  tlie  top  of  the  barge  in  many  parts 
guikfcd  and  strowed  with  fayre  by  sc.  The  two  figures  of  Justice 
and  Fortitude  most  an  end  being  quite  new  painted  and  guilded. 


INTEODUCTOEY. 


27 


The  bovder  on  the  outside  of  the  bulk  being  new  layd  with  faire 
wliite  and  trayled  over  with  greene  according  to  the  custom  here- 
tofore— and  for  baying  and  colouring  the  whole  number  of  the 
oares  for  the  row  barge  being  thirty-six." 

In  reference  to  this  account,  Walpole  adds  the  following 
foot-note  : 

"In  the  court  books  at  Paintcrs'-hall,  there  is  a  letter  to  the 
company  from  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  directing  them  to  appoint 
cei-tain  persons  of  their  hall  to  view  the  king's  and  queen's  barges 
lately  beautified,  painted,  and  gilded  by  De  Creetz,  and  give  an 
estimate  of  the  work,  which  they  did  of  £280  and  some  other 
expenses." 

The  letters  most  in  use  prior  to  the  invention  of  print- 
ing were  of  the  sort  called  ^'  Secretary,"  or  Gothic,  of 
which  there  were  several  kinds,  more  or  less  resembling 
ea^h  other.  Accordingly,  the  first  printing  letters  were 
the  same  as  the  written  characters  of  that  age,  which 
have  been  distinguished  by  the  name  of  "  Monkish-En- 
glish," and  these  are  the  parents  of  our  present  Old- 
English  or  Black  Letters.  About  thirty-three  years 
after  the  introduction  of  printing  into  this  country,  the 
Koman  letters  were  first  adopted  by  the  Italian  printers, 
Conrad  Schweynheym  and  Arnold  Pannartz,  and  used 
by  them  in  their  edition  of  "  St.  Augustin  on  the  City 
of  God,"  which  was  completed  in  the  year  1467.  The 
Roman  characters  of  this  early  period  were  not  alto- 
gether unlike  those  of  the  present  day,  though,  as  com- 
pared with  our  own,  they  were  very  rudely  formed. 
These  letters  were  much  improved  by  Nicholas  Jenson, 
who,  in  1470,  was  sent  to  Mainz  by  Louis  XL,  to  learn 
the  new  art  of  printing.  He  ultimately  settled  in 
Venice,  which  became  so  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of 
its  types  that  it  is  said  to  have  supplied  them  to  the 
early  printers  of  Rome.  Wynkyn  de  Worde  is  reputed, 
but  without  sufficient  authority,  to  have  been  the  first 
who  introduced  the  round  Roman  letters  of  Schweyn- 
heym and  Pannartz  into  England.  However  this  may 
have  been,  it  is  certain  that  Pynson,  in  1518,  printed  a 


28  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


book  in  England  entirely  in  Roman  characters.  About 
this  time  the  letters  now  known  by  the  name  of  Italic 
were  invented  by  Aldus  Manutius.  They  were  first 
called  Venetian,  from  the  inventor  being  a  resident  at 
Venice ;  but  not  long  after  they  were  "  dedicated  to  the 
state  of  Italy,  to  prevent  any  dispute  that  might  arise 
from  other  nations  claiming  a  priority,  as  was  the  case 
concerning  the  first  inventor  of  printing."* 

The  art  of  forming  letters  at  this  time  was  regarded 
as  a  secret,  the  few  who  were  able  to  do  it  at  all  satis- 
factorily being  most  watchful  lest  they  should  be  the 
means  of  communicating  their  knowledge  to  others. 
This  seems  to  have  been  the  case  more  especially  with 
the  early  letter-cutters.  Mr.  Moxon,  in  his  "  Mechanical 
Exercises,"  published  in  1683,  remarks,  with  respect  to 
letter-cutting  for  typographical  purposes,  that  "it  was 
a  handy-work  at  that  time  kept  so  concealed  among 
artificers  of  it  that  he  could  not  learn  any  one  had  taught 
it  any  other;  but  that  every  one  that  had  used  it  learnt 
it  of  his  own  genuine  inclination and  he  adds  that, 
*^by  the  appearance  of  some  work  done,  a  judicious  eye 
might  doubt  whether  they  went  by  any  rule  at  all, 
though  geometric  rules  in  no  practice  whatever  ought  to 
be  more  nicely  or  exactly  observed  than  in  this."  By 
applying  in  every  instance  geometry  and  mathematical 
and  mechanical  skill  to  the  art  of  formino;  and  cutting 
alphabetic  characters,  Mr.  Moxon  was  the  first  of  En- 
glish letter-cutters  who  reduced  to  rule  and  published 
the  art  which  before  him  had  been  practised,  as  he  him- 
self asserts,  but  by  guess,  and  left  to  succeeding  artists 
examples  that  they  might  follow  his  practice.  At  this 
period  the  Dutch  had  acquired  pre-eminence  for  the 
beauty  of  their  Roman  letters.  Moxon,  who  describej 
them  as  "  the  true  shape,"  says  they  were  formed  sa 
exactly  of  the  mathematical  regular  figures,  straight 


•  Philip  Luckoinbc's  "  Origin  and  Progress  of  Printing,"  1770. 


INTEODUCTOEY. 


29 


lines,  circles,  and  arches  of  circles,  and  with  such  a  true 
placing  of  fats  and  leans,'^  that  he  "set  himself  to 
anatomize  the  proportion  of  every  part  and  member  of 
them,"  and,  being  a  practical  letter-cutter  himself,  he 
adopted  as  the  proportions  of  his  own  letters  those  of 
Christofel  van  Dyck.  So  celebrated  was  Christofel  van 
Dyck  in  his  branch  of  art,  that  when  the  Stadthouse  at 
Amsterdam  was  near  completion,  he  was  sought  by  the 
officials  to  whom  was  entrusted  the  perfecting  of  the 
arrangements,  and  offered  <£80  sterling  for  only  drawing 
on  paper  the  names  of  the  several  offices  that  were  to  be 
painted  over  the  doors,  for  the  painter  to  paint  from.* 
This  is  important  evidence  of  the  value  put  upon  the 
services  of  a  skilled  writer  in  those  days. 

In  addition  to  the  jealousy  which  existed  amongst 
those  skilled  in  the  art  of  forming  and  cutting  letters  for 
printing,  and  which  tended  to  keep  it  a  secret  art,  the 
early  letter-cutters  had  to  contend  against  all  sorts  of 
prohibitive  legal  restraints.  We  can  find  no  trace  of  any 
enactments  respecting  written  or  painted  inscriptions  of 
any  kind  ;  but  the  spread  of  knowledge  which  the  print- 
ing press  was  calculated  to  effect  was  viewed  with  con- 
siderable alarm  ;  and  it  was  consequently  decreed  by  an 
order  of  the  Star  Chamber,  dated  the  11th  of  July,  1637, 
that  "  there  should  be  four  founders  of  letters  for  print- 
ing, and  no  more,"  and  as  the  places  of  these  became 
void,  the  vacancies  were  to  be  filled  up  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  or  the  Bishop  of  London,  with  six 
other  High  Commissioners.  The  same  decree  limited 
the  number  of  master  printers  to  twenty.  On  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Court,  16th  Charles  L,  these  restrictions 
were  removed,  but  were  reimposed  in  the  14th  Charles  • 
II.,  when  it  was  also  enacted  that  "  no  founder  was  to 
cast  any  letter    *       *       *       or  to  bring  from  parts 


*  "  Regulse  Trinra  Ordinum  Literarum  TypograpMcarum,"  by 
Joseph  Moxon,  1676. 
3* 


30 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


beyond  the  seas  any  letters  founded  or  cast  for  print- 
ing," nor  was  any  person  ^'  to  buy  any  letters  or  other 
materials  belonging  unto  printing  without  application  to 
the  masters  and  wardens  of  the  Company  of  Stationers/^ 
This  Act  expired  in  1693,  and  thenceforward  the  art  of 
letter-founding,  and,  as  a  consequence,  of  painting  in- 
scriptions, became  more  general,  and  greater  uniformity 
and  neatness  prevailed  in  the  shapes  of  the  letters. 
From  about  this  period  dates  the  peculiar  formation  of 
the  Roman  characters  whicli  are  now  so  much  in  repute 
and  known  as  the  "  old-faced." 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  very  conclusive  evi- 
dence that  writing  upon  signs  was  resorted  to,  except  in 
rare  instances,  before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. On  the  contrary,  there  are  extant  records  which, 
incidentally,  go  far  to  show  that  painted  inscriptions  for 
business  purposes  were  exceptional,  and  had  be(!ome  by 
no  means  general  even  in  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century.  A  Frenchman — M.  Misson — who  visited 
England  in  1719,  gives  some  account  of  the  signs  of 
London,  observing  that  they  seldom  write  upon  the 
signs  the  names  of  the  things  repi-esented  in  them." 
And  Mr.  Hotten,  in  his  work  already  referred  to,  says 

that  the  absence  of  inscriptions  was  not  to  be  lamented, 
for  those  that  existed  only  '  made  fritters  of  English'  " — 
a  charge  from  which  we  are  not  altogether  free  in  the 
present  day,  as  Avill  be  shown  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

Were  it  possible,  it  would  no  doubt  amuse  some  of 
our  modern  sign-writers  to  see  and  criticise  the  letters 
forming  the  inscriptions  thus  referred  to.  Unfortunate- 
ly, owing  to  the  perishable  nature  of  the  materials  cm- 
•  ployed,  they  are  debarred  this  opportunity.  But,  com- 
paring like  things  with  like,  w^e  may  indirectly  get  a 
glimpse  of  the  style  of  the  early  painted  inscriptions 
from  those  engraved  on  tomb  and  other  memorial  stones, 
wiiich  are  still  extant. 

The  letters  on  some  of  the  superior  class  of  tond)3 


INTEODUCTORY. 


31 


which  were  executed  centuries  ago  are  as  perfect  in 
symmetry  and  as  regularly  formed  as  any  of  the  present 
day.  Even  so  far  back  as  1085,  the  sculptured  letters 
in  Gothic  characters  on  the  tomb  of  Gundrada,  sister  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  in  Southover  Church,  Lewes, 
are  almost  perfection  in  form  and  finish.*  Henry  III.'s 
tomb  in  Westminster  Abbey  bears  inscriptions  in  the 
Anglo-Norman,  or,  as  Mr.  Astle  calls  them,  modern 
Gothic,^^  characters,  which  are  excellently  well  shaped. 
The  famous  tomb  of  Henry  VII.,  also  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  affords  a  capital  illustration  of  symmetry  and 
beauty  as  regards  the  inscriptions,  some  of  which  are  in 
Old  English  or  Black  Letter,  according  to  the  usual 
custom  in  the  Mediaeval  period,  and  others  in  ornament- 
ed Roman  capitals.  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  highest  talent  procurable  from  the  continent  was 
engaged  in  the  execution  of  these  important  national 
memorials.  The  momument  to  Henry  VII.  was  the 
work  of  the  great  master  Torrigiano;  and  although  he 
may  not  have  actually  executed  the  inscriptions,  still 
they  would  have  come  under  his  own  immediate  super- 
intendence, and  would  not  have  been  trusted  to  any 
inferior  hand.  The  monument  of  Richard  11.  and  others 
of  about  the  same  date  (1400),  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
bear  inscriptions  in  Gothic  characters,  which  have  never 
been  excelled.  They  are  not  only  well  proportioned, 
but  perfect  in  every  particular,  and  might  be  takeo  as 

*  The  letters  on  this  tomb  are  so  remarkably  neat  and  symiwft- 
trical  and  so  nearly  like  those  in  use  at  the  present  day,  that  we 
entertained  some  doubt  whether  they  were  of  the  date  assigned 
to  them.  Being  desirous  of  ascertaining  the  truth,  we  communi- 
cated with  the  eminent  antiquary,  Mr.  Mark  Anthony  Lower,  and 
we  have  permission  1o  state  on  his  authority  that  the  tomb  is  a 
genuine  relic  of  the  eleventh  century.  Moreover,  the  lettering  is 
precisely  similar  to  that  on  the  tomb  of  Gundrada's  mother  at 
Caen.  Gundrada  died  in  1085,  and  as  she  and  her  husband,  Wil- 
liam de  Warrenne,  had  recently  founded  Lewes  Priory,  it  may 
reasonably  be  presumed  that  the  monument  dates  before  the  year 
1100. 


32  SIGN  WHITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 

models  of  excellence  in  the  present  day.*  Mr.  Henry 
Shaw  has  given  examples  of  these  in  his  excellent  work 
on  "  Mediaeval  Alphabets  and  Devices/^  published  in 
1845j  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

In  addition  to  the  inscriptions  on  tombs,  those  on 
ancient  monumental  brasses  are  most  interesting,  as 
affording  evidence  of  the  skill  of  the  early  engravers  on 
metal  centuries  before  the  art  of  printing  was  thought 
of.  The  lettering  on  some  of  these  relics  is  exceedingly 
well  executed,  the  characters  bearing  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  modern,  both  in  form  and  proportion.  It 
is  somewhat  singular  that  the  monumental  brasses  which 
are  known  to  have  been  engraven  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  are  superior  to  those  of  a  more  recent 
date.  This  art  began  rapidly  to  decline  towards  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth,  and  became  almost  extinct  in  the 
seventeenth  century. 

As  affording  a  marked  contrast  to  these  master-pieces, 


*  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  inscriptions  on  the  superior  class 
of  tombs  were  regarded  as  an  integral  portion  of  the  work  itself. 
Nicholas  Stone,  who  was  born  at  Woodbury,  near  Exeter,  in  1586, 
attained  much  celebrity  in  making  monuments  for  persons  of  dis- 
tinction. The  history  of  his  works  is  fully  recorded  by  himself. 
Yertue  met  with  his  pocket  book,  in  which  he  left  an  account  of 
the  statues  and  tombs  he  executed,  who  employed  him,  and  the 
payment  he  received.  Walpole,  in  his  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting," 
vol.  i,,  p.  237,  et  se^.,  makes  some  extracts  from  this  diary,  from 
which  we  quote  the  following,  showing  that,  at  all  events,  the 
price  received  by  Stone  for  inscriptions  was  no  mean  sum  : 

"  My  Lord  of  Clare  also  agreed  with  me  for  a  monument 
for  his  brother  Sir  George  Holies,  the  which  I  made  and  sett 
up  in  the  chappell  at  Westminster  where  Sir  Francis  Vere 
lyeth  buried,  for  the  which  I  was  paid  from  the  hands  of  the 
said  Earl  of  Clare  £100. 

"  And  in  the  same  church  I  made  an  inscription  for  Sir 
Richard  Cox  for  the  which  I  had  £80. 

*'  And  another  fast  by  for  Monsieur  Casabon  ;  the  Lord 
Bishop  of  Durham  paid  for  it  £G0. 

"And  about  this  time  (1635)  I  made,"  &c. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


33 


are  the  more  common  engraven  or  carved  inscriptions 
which  have  come  down  to  our  own  time  from  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  many  of  which  are  of  the  rudest  possible 
kind.  Even  those  of  the  last  century  are  characterized 
by  ill-shaped  letters,  bad  punctuation,  and  an  utter 
ignorance  of  the  construction  of  words.  It  will  not  be 
necessary  in  this  work  to  give  any  examples  of  these 
inferior  inscriptions,  inasmuch  as  nearly  every  one  in- 
terested in  the  subject  must  have  observed  their  short- 
comings. The  forms  of  the  letters  are  of  the  most 
primitive  and  rude  description,  of  which  no  idea  can  be 
given  by  means  of  simple  letter-press. 

Whilst,  therefore,  we  have  examples  showing,  on  tiie 
one  hand,  that  the  great  masters  who  executed  the 
superior  monuments  were  thoroughly  efficient  writers  in 
the  best  sense  of  the  term,  inasmuch  as  they  delineated 
the  literal  characters  of  the  alphabet  with  perfect  grace 
and  symmetry;  we  have,  on  the  other  hand,  abundant 
evidence  that  the  ordinary  workman  was  vastly  deficient 
in  all  the  artistic  knowledge  and  refinement  which 
should  distinguish  a  competent  writer. 

We  are  not  aware  whether  these  memorial  inscriptions 
were  generally  designed  or  pencilled  out  by  the  master- 
mason  himself — as  those  executed  by  Nicholas  Stone 
appear  to  have  been — or  whether  it  was  customary,  as  it 
is  at  the  present  day,  for  the  mason  to  entrust  this  to 
some  other  person, — a  sign-writer,  for  instance, — and 
then  cut  in  the  letters  to  the  writer's  outline.  Assuming 
the  latter  to  have  been  the  case,  it  may  naturally  be 
inferred  that  the  writer  would  be  anxious  to  do  his  best, 
having  regard  to  the  length  of  time  his  work  would  be 
expected  to  endure  in  stone.  This,  then,  would  rather 
lead  to  the  assumption  that  the  less  durable  painted  in- 
scriptions on  signs  and  houses  would  be  executed  in  a 
comparatively  less  skilful  manner,  or,  at  all  events, 
that  so  much  pains  would  not  be  bestowed  upon  them. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  the  art  of 


34  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


writing,  especially  as  it  was  exhibited  on  signs,  was 
at  a  very  low  level  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and 
throughout  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  At 
this  period,  the  projecting  signs  having  been  doomed, 
and  the  arts  of  reading  and  writing  having  become 
pretty  general  accomplishments,  the  picture  signs  began 
to  be  succeeded  by  written  ones,  which  had,  in  fact,  be- 
come absolutely  necessary  in  consequence  of  the  pro- 
gress of  commercial  enterprise.  The  old  method  was  at 
best  a  clumsy  one,  and  utterly  unsuited  to  the  require- 
ments of  a  country  which  had  begun  to  earn  for  itself 
the  reputation  of  being,  what  it  was  afterwards  contemj*- 
tuously  designated,  "  a  nation  of  shopkeepers." 


CHAPTER  11. 


DKAWING  ESSENTIAL  LINES. 

Writing  being  a  species  of  drawing,  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary at  the  outset  for  the  student  in  the  art  of  form- 
ing and  painting  alphabetical  characters,  to  perfect  him- 
self in  drawing  essential  lines,  both  straight  and  curved. 
The  straight  lines  are  called  perpendicular,  horizontal, 
and  oblique ;  and,  besides  these,  there  are  the  correspond- 
ing curves.  Every  letter  of  the  alphabet — in  fact,  every 
arbitrary  character — is  formed  by  different  combinations 
of  these  lines.  This  is  self-evident;  yet,  no  longer  ago 
than  the  year  1772,  a  Mr.  L.  D.  Nelme  jDublished  a 
work  on  the  Origin  and  Elements  of  Languuge  and 
Letters,'^  in  w^hich  he  labored  to  show  that  all  elemen- 
tary characters  derive  their  form  from  the  line  and  the 
curve,  as  if  they  could  have  been  derived  from  any  other 
source  ! 

In  order  to  be  able  to  make  essential  lines  with  ease 
and  precision,  the  beginner  is  recommended  to  practise 
drawing  them  over  and  over  again  with  a  piece  of  soft 
or  "  free"  chalk,  or  pipe-clay,*  on  a  black  board.  As, 
practically,  the  sign-writer  is  called  upon  to  exercise  his 


*  The  best  way  to  get  the  pipe-clay  is  to  go  to  a  maker  of  ihe 
ordinary  white  claj'-pipes  ;  and,  for  a  penny,  the  student  will  be 
able  to  purchase  several  sticks  of  well-formed  crayon-looking 
material — in  fact,  pieces  of  the  stems  of  pipes  broken  before  being 
baked.  This  is  a  most  serviceable  article,  and  is  most  invariably 
used  by  writers.  It  marks  feadily,  without  scratching  the  paint, 
and  it  has  this  great  advantage  over  soft  chalk,  that  it  docs  not 
leave  any  trace  of  dust  behind. 

35 


36 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


art  on  upright  surfaces,  it  is  important  that  the  student 
should  commence  his  practice  on  a  board,  resting  on  an 
easel,  and  slanting  but  very  slightly,  and  nev^er  on  the 
flat  top  of  a  table  or  bench.  The  straight  or  curved  lines 
should  be  effected  purely  by  free-hand  drawing,  without 
ruler  or  compasses,  until  the  student  has  acquired  the 
habit  of  rendering  them  with  tolerable  precision.  The 
method  of  procedure  should  be  varied  occasionally  by 
substituting  for  the  pipe-clay  a  sable  hair  pencil  charged 
with  oil  color,  and  when  this  is  used,  the  right  arm 
must  rest  on  a  mahl-stick  held  in  the  left  hand,  and 
never  upon  the  board  itself.  In  using  oil  color,  the 
paint  sliould  be  rubbed  off  with  a  piece  of  rag  before  it 
has  had  time  to  dry,  or  it  will  be  necessary  to  paint  the 
board  afresh  after  each  day's  practice. 

In  drawing  straight  and  curved  lines  the  use  of  ruler 
or  compasses  should  be  avoided..  The  chief  object  to  be 
attained  is  freedom  and  command  of  hand ;  and  this  is 
only  to  be  accomplished  by  practising  without  those 
mechanical  aids,  which,  though  indispensable  to  the 
architectural  or  engineering  draughtsman,  would  only 
serve  to  retard  the  progress  of  the  writer. 

At  the  outset,  the  student,  though  able  to  see  that  his 
attempts  are  not  perfect,  will  probal)ly  be  at  a  loss  to 
discover  where  his  line  is  at  iault;  but  after  repeated 
efforts  the  eye  Avill  become  so  educated  that  it  will  at 
once  detect  the  slightest  deviation  from  the  truth,  and 
suggest  where  amendment  is  required.  If,  for  instance, 
a  line  intended  to  be  vertical  leans  either  to  the  right  or 
left,  an  experienced  eye  will  easily  detect  it.  In  such  a 
case  it  is  common  to  hear  even  skilled  workmen  say 
that  it  is  "  not  straight.'^  This,  of  course,  is  an  obvious 
error,  the  fact  being  that  the  line  is  simply  out  of  up- 
right, as  all  the  three  essential  lines — horizontal,  per- 
pendicular, and  oblique — are  straight. 

In  making  circles  or  curves  by  free-hand  drawing — 
and  lettering  is  a  species  of  drawing  more  or  less  me- 


DEAWING  ESSENTIAL  LINES. 


37 


ihahical  according  as  the  letters  be  plain  or  ornamental— 
coiisiderable  practice  will  be  required.  It  is  possible  to 
make  a  perfect  circle  without  the  aid  of  compasses.  His- 
tory lias  left  it  on  record  that,  when  the  great  painter 
Giotto  appeared  before  the  emissaries  of  the  then  reign- 
ing Pope,  who  had  come  to  engage  him,  and  was  asked 
for  some  specimen  of  his  work,  he  at  once  drew,  off- 
hand, a  circle  so  perfect  that  no  further  proof  of  the 
young  painter's  genius  was  asked  for.  Everybody, 
however,  cannot  be  expected  to  reach  this  high  state  of 
perfection  ;  but  with  diligence  and  care  every  one  can 
attain  to  considerable  efficiency  in  drawing  straight  lines, 
curves,  and  circles,  without  any  guides  save  those  of  the 
.  eye  and  hand.  To  accomplish  this,  the  best  mode  of 
proceeding  at  first,  is  to  form  a  circle  of  about  three 
inches  in  diameter,  which  will  be  found  easier  than 
making  a  large  one  to  begin  with ;  then  to  mark  a  sec- 
ond circle  round  it  at  a  given  distance,  and  to  repeat  the 
operation  until  the  blackboard  is  covered  with  a  series 
of  concentric  rings.  By  continuing  to  do  this  alternately 
with  pipe-clay  and  a  sable-hair  pencil  charged  with 
color,  the  student,  after  repeated  efforts,  will  find  no 
difficulty  in  making  a  circle  true  enough  for  all  practi- 
cal purposes,  so  far  as  writing  is  concerned,  without  any 
mechanical  aid  whatever.  Of  course,  the  amount  of 
rSuccess  will  always  be  in  proportion  to  the  diligence  and 
pains  bestowed;  and  in  regard  to  this,  as  Avell  as  every 
regular  or  geometrical  form,  the  most  uneducated  eye  is, 
to  a  certain  extent,  capable  of  judging.  As  has  been 
already  said,  all  forms  of  an  arbitrary  character  are  com- 
posed of  straight  lines  and  curves.  A  capital  Roman 
R,  for  instance,  is  a  combination  of  straight  and  curved 
lines,  and  is,  therefore,  what  is  called  an  arbitrary  or 
irregular  form.  The  letter  S  is  another  example,  as  also 
is  G,  and  others  might  be  instanced  if  it  were  necessary. 
Obviously,  these  letters  are  more  difficult  of  formation 
than  those  embracing  direct  or  straight  lines  only,  such 
4 


58 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


as  A,  E,  and  many  others ;  and,  accordingly,  tlie  student 
should  make  at  least  two  of  the  former  to  one  of  the 
latter,  in  order  to  become  equally  proficient  in  both. 

Lines  running  in  the  same  direction,  and  continuing 
always  at  the  same  distance  from  each  other,  are  called 
parallel  lines,  and  should  be  practised  in  the  same  way 
as  single  lines.  Every  letter  of  the  alphabet  is  formed 
of  parallel  lines,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  skeleton 
letters.  Take  the  simple  form  of  0  as  an  example.  It 
will  here  be  seen  that  there  are  two  perpendicular  and  two 
horizontal  lines;  and  if  any  degree  of  facility  in  making 
straight  lines  has  been  acquired,  it  may  readily  be  im- 
agined that  no  great  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in 
combining  them  in  so  simple  a  manner. 

It  is  necessary  not  only  to  practise  drawing  lines  par- 
allel to  each  otiier,  but  to  do  it  with  the  view  of  keeping 
them  all  at  the  same  distance  apart,  because  if  they  are 
not  uniform  tliroughout,  and  are  used  as  the  component 
parts  of  letters,  the  writing  will  present  anything  but  a 
regular  or  pleasing  appearance.  Suppose,  for  instance, 
the  learner  were  to  write  in  large  letters,  the  word  EN- 
TIRE, and  that  in  doing  so  he  made  the  perpendicular 
lines  of  the  thick  strokes  of  the  letters,  which  should 
be  not  only  parallel  but  equidistant,  at  different  distances 
from  each  other,  the  result  would  be  very  unsatisfactory 
when  the  outline  came  to  be  filled  up,  for  instead  of 
the  letters  bein[  of  one  uniform  thickness  throughout, 
they  would  probably  present  an  irregular  appearance 
somewhat  like  the  following : 

And  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  irregularity  would 
be  still  more  apparent  if  the  letters  w^ere  produced  upon 
a  very  large  scale. 

To  secure  perfect  uniformity  in  the  thickness,  or, 
rather,  width  of  the  thick  strokes  of  the  letters — the  term 


DRAWING  ESSENTIAL  LINES. 


39 


"thickness'^  being  used  technically  to  express  a  diiferent 
thing,  which  will  be  hereafter  explained — it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  resort  to  the  use  of  measure  or  compasses,  as  any 
deviations  from  just  proportions  will  at  once  offend  the 
experienced  eye.  The  well-known  forms  and  proportions 
of  the  alphabetic  characters  will  enable  the  student  to 
perceive  whether  his  attempts  are  successful  or  otherwise. 
Alison,  in  his  ^' Essay  on  Taste/^  remarks  that  "^o  man 
ever  presumes  to  speak  of  the  proportions  of  a  machine 
of  the  use  of  which  he  is  ignorant."  But  here  the 
"  machine  "  is  a  universal  one,  and  everybody  is  more  or 
less  acquainted  with  the  proportions  of  the  particular  class 
of  forms  which  it  presents. 

Nor  should  any  measurement  be  adopted  for  the  dis- 
tance or  space  between  the  letters ;  but  in  all  cases  the 
eye  and  judgment  must  be  depended  upon.  Indeed,  it 
would  be  a  mistake  to  attempt  to  gain  uniformity  by 
having  exactly  the  same  space  between  the  letters,  some 
requiring  to  be  closer  together  than  others,  in  order  to 
get  rid  of  the  void  which  some  letters  in  contact  exhibit. 
Take,  for  example,  the  word  PERFECTION.  The  E 
should  be  a  trifle  closer  to  the  P  than  the  R.  to  the  E,  or 
the  F  to  the  P,  and  there  should  be  less  space  between 
the  CTI  than  between  any  of  the  other  letters  in  the 
word  (with  the  exception  of  the  first  two).  The  reason 
for  this  is  obvious.  If  the  same  spacing  were  adopted 
throughout,  the  gap  or  "white,'^  as  it  is  called,  formed 
by  the  P  and  the  T,  would  give  those  letters  the  appear- 
ance of  being  wider  spaced  than  any  of  the  rest.  To 
make  this  perfectly  clear,  take  the  word  LAMB.  Now^ 
it  must  be  apparent  from  the  conformation  of  these  let- 
ters that  their  distance  from  each  other  should  not  be 
equal.  The  LA  should  be  closer  together  than  the  AM^ 
and  the  AM  than  the  MB.  The  right  foot  of  the  L  and 
the  left  foot  of  the  A  should  nearly  touch  ;  there  should 
be  a  trifle  more  space  between  the  A  and  M ;  and  as  in 
the  M  and  B  the  thick  perpendicular  lines  come  together 


40  SIGN  WEITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


the  distance  between  them  should  be  at  least  double  that 
between  the  A  and  the  M.  Of  course,  in  the  compara- 
tively small  type  in  which  this  work  is  printed  it  is  im- 
possible to  point  out  with  any  degree  of  force  the  effect 
of  injudicious  spacing  between  the  letters.  The  student, 
however,  will  at  oace  see  wdiat  is  intended  to  be  con- 
veyed. That  which  is  scarcely  observable  in  the  case  of 
small  letters,  is  at  once  manifest  when  the  lettering  is 
produced  on  a  large  scale.  Evidences  in  regard  to  want 
of  judgment  in  this  particular  may  be  met  with  very 
frequently;  but  these  only  indicate  that  the  sign-wTiter 
is  not  a  thoroughly  efficient  master  of  his  art.  The 
beginner  should  pay  much  attention  to  this  point  at  the 
outset,  and  carefully  note  any  irregularity  which  he  may 
discover,  so  that  he  may  avoid  it  in  his  own  practice. 

In  regard  to  this  matter  of  adjustment,  the  sign-writer 
has  a  decided  advantage  over  the  printer,  the  types  used 
for  printing  being  cast  on  the  principle  that  all  the  let- 
ters in  a  word  should  stand  exactly  the  same  distance 
apart.  Theoretically,  this  is  no  doubt  perfectly  sound  ; 
but,  practically,  it  is  open  to  objection.  If  the  letters 
were  all  square,  pointed,  or  round,  uniformity  of  spac- 
ing might  be  adopted.  But  as  some  letters  are  square, 
others  pointed,  and  others  again  curvilinear,  the  spacing 
must  necessarily  be  so  adjusted  as  to  counterbalance  the 
irregularity  that  would  be  otherwise  apparent,  and  which, 
in  typography,  is  often  noticeable.  The  object  of  this 
adjustment  is  so  self-evident  that  further  explanation 
would  be  superfluous. 

It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  what  is  here 
stated  has  only  a  general  application,  and  that  no  abso- 
lute rules  to  guide  the  student  in  this  matter  can  be  laid 
down.  He  will  soon  perceive  where  his  efforts  fall  short 
of  the  anticipated  result,  and  by  carefully  storing  those 
defects  in  his  memory  future  failure  will,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, be  obviated. 

The  art  of  drawing  straight  lines  and  curves,  so  as  to 


DRAWING  ESSENTIAL  LINES. 


41 


secure  correctness  of  outline,  then,  is  the  very  first 
essential  in  writing.  To  attain  this  no  pains  should  be 
spared.  If  the  letters  are  not  well  formed  and  set  out 
accurately  in  the  first  instance,  the  application  of  color 
will  only  make  the  imperfections  more  glaring,  and  dis- 
appointment in  the  end  will  be  the  certain  result.  A 
baker  who  makes  a  shapeless  loaf  of  bread  has  the  satis- 
faction of  knowing  that  it  will  soon  be  consumed ;  but 
the  work  of  the  sign-writer  is,  for  the  most  part,  exposed 
so  long  to  the  public  view,  that  it  is  worth  an  effort  to 
make  the  letters  carefully,  so  that  employer  and  employed 
may  be  satisfied,  and  the  eye  not  offended  with  the  work 
of  the  hand. 


4* 


CHAPTER  III. 


SETTING  OUT  THE  WRITING. 

Having  in  the  foregoing  chapter  dwelt  upon  the 
necessity  which  exists  for  facility  of  hand  and  correct- 
ness of  eye  in  relation  to  the  simple  forms  which,  in 
different  combinations,  compose  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, we  now  pass  on  to  the  next  point  of  consideration, 
and  give  a  few  hints  as  to  the  best  methods  of  setting  out 
the  writing,  whatever  it  may  happen  to  be. 

In  a  work  of  this  kind  it  is  not  expedient  to  give  the 
absolute  forms  of  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  of  which 
there  are  several  classes — such  as  Roman,  Italic,  San- 
SGv'iW,  Egyptian,  Ornamental,  etc.  It  might  at  first  be 
imagined  that  all  writers  would  form  the  letters  of  these 
various  alphabets  in  the  same  way ;  but  such  is  not  the 
case,  every  one  having  a  style  more  or  less  peculiar  to 
himself.  This  may  seem  a  strange  assertion  to  the  un- 
observant, but  it  is  true  nevertheless.  Those  accustomed 
to  the  styles  of  the  different  writers  of  the  metropolis,  or 
of  any  large  provincial  town,  are  able,  by  a  mere  glance 
at  the  lettering  ])roduced,  to  tell  off-hand  by  whom  it 
was  executed,  even  though  they  may  not  have  seen  the 
work  during  its  progress — -just  as  in  ordinary  longhand 
writing  with  a  pen  or  pencil,  a  person  familiar  with  an- 
other's style  of  caligraphy  is  capable  of  recognizing,  and, 
if  necessary,  of  swearing  to  it.  For  this  reason,  the 
learner  is  not  recommended  to  copy  exactly  any  individ- 
ual's peculiar  style  of  forming  the  alphabets  of  various 
kinds ;  but  he  should  select  from  the  best,  models  he  can 
42 


SETTING  OUT  THE  WEITING. 


43 


find  either  in  typograpliy  or  on  the  walls  or  sign- 
boards. 

As  a  rule,  closely  copying  printers'  letters  is  not  ad- 
visable. These  are  often  very  indifferent  models  for 
the  sign-writer.  It  is  but  right,  however,  to  remark 
that  of  late  years  type-founders  have  greatly  improved 
their  style,  especially  wood  letter-cutters,  and  many  of 
their  alpliabets  are  by  no  means  to  be  discarded  as  un- 
worthy of  imitation.  The  taste  and  judgment  must  be 
consulted  in  this  matter ;  and,  by  following  what  these 
dictate  as  the  best  forms  for  grace  and  symmetry,  the 
beginner  will  soon  acquire  a  style  of  his  own  quite  as 
individual  as  that  of  his  hand- writing. 

As  the  names  of  the  principal  alphabets  in  common 
use  are  frequently  mentioned  throughout  this  little  work, 
it  may  be  necessary  here  to  make  sure  that  the  beginner 
has  a  clear  knowledge  of  what  these  names  imply.  With 
this  view  we  insert  a  line  in  each  of  the  four  ordinary 
classes  of  letters.  Thus,  there  are  first  the  Roman 
capitals  : — 

ABCDEFGHLJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. 
Then,  what  are  called  Italic  : — 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ, 
^^"ext  comes  the  San-seriff : — 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
Then  w^e  have  the  Egyptian  : — ■ 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  by  way  of  practice  is  to 
"  snap^'  a  chalk  line  on  the  surface  on  which  the  letters 
liave  to  be  made.  Let  the  black  board  again  be  used. 
It  should  be  stated  that,  though  the  use  of  any  sort  of 
measurement  in  regard  to  the  letters  themselves  has 
been  deprecated,  it  is  almost  a  necessity  that  some  means 
should  be  adopted  to  keep  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the 
letters  in  a  direct  line.    It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to 


44 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


"snap"  two  chalk  lines  of  the  height  required  for  the 
letters. 

Now,  before  setting  out  these  horizontal  lines,  or,  as 
they  are  called,  ^^straight"  lines,  care  should  be  taken 
to  ascertain  whether  the  two  sides  of  the  board  are  equal 
— whether,  in  fact,  the  board  is  a  perfect  square  or  a 
perfect  parallelogram.  If  it  is  not,  as  is  often  the  case, 
and  it  is  intended  to  have,  say,  three  rows  of  letters,  the 
difference  in  the  two  sides,  though  it  may  be  but  slight, 
should  be  divided  equally  between  the  three  rows,  so 
tliat  not  one  of  the  three  should  run  either  up  or  down 
in  tin  oblique  direction.  If  the  board  is  much  wider  at 
one  end  than  the  other,  the  best  plan  will  be  to  find  the 
half  of  each  side,  and  having  marked  the  point  with  a 
piece  of  pipe-clay  or  crayon,  to  set  out  the  middle  row 
from  it.  Suppose  the  letters  are  to  be  four  inches  in 
height,  mark  off  with  the  rule  two  inches  above  and  two 
inches  below  the  half  way  point.  The  chalk  lines  should 
then  be  snapped,  and  the  letters  carefully  outlined  with 
a  piece  of  writer's  pipe-clay.  The  other  two  rows  should 
next  beset  out  and  snapped  in  like  manner;  but  in 
doing  this  it  must  be  taken  into  consideration  that  the 
board  is  out  of  square,  that  one  side  has  a  greater  depth 
than  the  other,  and  accordingly  an  allowance  must  be 
made  to  counteract  this  inequality.  If  the  right  side  be 
wider  than  the  left,  the  top  row  of  letters  should  be  a 
trifle  further  from  the  middle  row  on  that  side  than  on 
the  other  ;  and  the  same  with  reference  to  the  bottom 
row.  By  this  means  the  defect  in  the  shape  of  the  board 
will  be  divided  away,  and,  to  all  appearance,  got  gid  of; 
and  though,  of  course,  the  three  rows  of  letters  will  not, 
strictly  speaking,  be  parallel,  the  variation  will  be  almost, 
if  not  entirely,  inappreciable. 

If  this  method  of  adjustment  in  the  setting  out  were 
not  followed,  and  the  three  rows  of  letters  were  made 
exactly  parallel  with  the  top  of  the  board,  they  would 
appear  to  run  "  up-hill,"  as  it  is  called ;  or,  if  they  were 


SETTING  OUT  THE  WRITING. 


45 


measured  from  the  bottom,  they  would  run  "  down- 
hill/' and  in  either  case,  the  writing  would  seem  to  be 
in  fault  instead  of  the  board. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  in  no  instance 
must  the  letters  themselves  vary  in  height  in  the  same 
line,  except  in  a  few  instances,  which  are  hereafter  ex- 
plained. When  this  adjustment  is  required  to  make  up 
for  the  defect  in  the  plane  surface,  whatever  it  may  be,  it 
should  be  made  in  the  space  between  the  lines,  and 
should  not  interfere  with  the  lines  themselves,  which  must 
always  be  parallel.  We  have  used  the  word  snap  in 
its  technical  sense,  and  it  is  necessary  to  explain  it.  To 
"  snap  a  line  "  is  to  form  it  by  means  of  a  chalked  cord 
drawn  across  a  surface,  and  then  snapped  or  flicked,  so 
that  the  chalk  is  deposited,  a  faint  line  being  thus 
secured.  The  method  of  snapping  the  chalk-line,  simple 
as  it  is,  is  not  unworthy  of  a  little  description.  When 
there  are  two  persons,  one  at  each  end  of  the  board  to  be 
written  upon,  the  line  is  easily  made ;  but  when,  as  often 
happens,  the  operator  is  alone,  he  Avill  have  to  find  a 
sort  of  substitute  for  a  second  person.  He  must,  there- 
fore, provide  himself  with  a  finely-pointed  awl,  and 
make  a  small  loop  at  the  end  of  the  cord  or  chalk-line. 
By  inserting  the  awl  through  the  loop,  and  pressing  it 
into  the  board  at  the  point  where  the  line  is  required  on 
the  right  hand  side,  the  cord  will  be  fixed  securely  at 
one  end.  It  should  then  be  held  in  the  left  hand,  leav- 
ing the  right  at  liberty  to  rub  it  with  chalk,  and  to  snap 
it  Avhen  is  is  guided  to  the  proper  point  and  pulled  tight 
by  the  left  hand.  This  method  is  invariably  adopted, 
owing  to  its  simplicity  and  effectiveness.  If  the  board 
be  but  three  or  four  feet  long,  the  cord,  having  previously 
been  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  chalk,  can  be  held  between 
the  thumb  and  finger  of  each  hand,  and  drawn  tight 
across  the  board  in  the  direction  in  which  the  line  is  re- 
quired ;  and  if  a  piece  of  cotton  has  been  attached  to  the 
middle  of  the  cord,  the  end  being  in  the  mouth  and  held 


46  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


between  the  teeth,  a  slight  backward  motion  of  the  liead 
Buffieieiit  to  make  a  jerk  will  have  the  desired  effect. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  writing  is  not  re- 
quired to  be  in  a  straight  line,  bat  on  a  curve,  and  this 
is  frequently  the  case  with  the  top  line  when  more  than 
me  is  required.  When  judiciously  introduced,  curved 
lines,  in  combination  with  direct  lines,  have  a  pleasing 
effect ;  but  a  series  of  curves  in  different  directions  should 
be  avoided ;  for  unless  the  writer  has  acquired  proficiency 
in  his  art  it  will  be  a  difficult  task  to  arrange  them  in  a 
satisfactory  manner.  The  most  common  form  of  curved 
writing  is  that  of  an  arc  of  a  circle,  or  a  scroll.  The 
latter  is  invariably  made  by  the  hand  without  any  guide, 
and  it  is  by  no  means  difficult  of  formation.  If  an  arc 
of  a  circle  is  desired,  a  faint  line  should  be  drawn  down 
the  centre  of  the  board,  near  the  bottom  of  which  the 
left  hand  should  press  the  chalk-line,  and,  having 
inserted  a  piece  of  crayon  or  pencil  through  the  loop,  the 
right  hand  will  be  at  liberty  to  describe  the  curve.  Of 
course,  the  arc  will  vary  just  in  proportion  as  the  left 
hand  is  held  higher  or  lower  on  the  board.  To  form 
the  second  line  the  length  of  the  cord  must  be  taken  in 
to  the  extent  required,  and  the  left  hand  must  hold  the 
cord  to  exactly  the  same  point  of  contact  as  that  frog 
which  the  first  line  was  described.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  right  hand,  in  guiding  the  crayon  or 
pencil,  moves  regularly  and  evenly  round,  or  the  arc 
will  be  imperfect,  and  nearer  the  top  of  the  board  on 
one  side  than  the  other. 

Having  made  the  chalk  lines,  the  letters  should  be  first 
lightly  sketched  out  to  ascertain  whether  they  will  come 
in  evenly  in  the  allotted  length.  The  young  writer  will 
find  this  one  of  the  most  perplexing  things  with  which  he 
will  have  to  contend.  Failure  at  the  outset  is  almost 
inevitable.  Sometimes  he  will  reach  the  end  of  his 
space  before  he  has  half  finished  the  number  of  letters 
he  expected  or  thought  to  get  in ;  and  then,  perhaps,  in 


SETTING  OUT  THE  WRITING. 


47 


his  very  next  attempt,  he  will  have  exhausted  his  lettci'S 
long  before  reaching  the  end  of  the  space  he  intended  to 
fill.  Nothing  looks  much  worse  than  writing  when  it 
liappens  to  be  "  all  on  one  side,"  as  the  expression  goes. 
No  matter  how  perfect  the  individual  letters  may  be,  if 
they  are  as  a  whole  unevenly  balanced,  the  result  will 
be  most  disagreeable.  Even  men  who  are  reputed  to  be 
good  workmen  often  fail  in  this  particular.  It  is  no 
very  uncommon  thing  to  see  painted  on  a  shop  fascia  for 
instance,  the  shopkeeper's  name  and  calling,  and  at  one 
end  only  a  fine  flowing  flourish,  altogether  out  of  place 
and  superfluous,  its  obvious  object  being  to  balance  the 
line  and  hide  the  writer's  want  of  skill,  instead  of  which 
it  not  unfrequently  makes  the  matter  worse,  the  reason 
of  its  introduction  being  so  transparent.  A  really  skil- 
ful and  practised  writer  has  no  occasion  to  resort  to  such 
a  subterfuge,  for  he  will  judge  at  once  of  the  exact  height 
and  proportion  the  letters  ought  to  be  to  fill  a  given 
space.  It  is  almost  marvellous  to  what  perfection  some 
men  have  attained  in  this  respect.  No  matter  if  the  line 
be  twenty  or  thirty  feet  long,  they  will  set  out  the  letters 
they  have  to  write  to  such  a  nicety  that  they  will  be 
within  an  inch  or  two  at  the  most  of  the  space  they 
i|ktended  to  occupy,  and  they  will  do  this  the  first  time, 
without  repeated  trials.  Of  course,  the  learner  will  be  a 
long  time  before  he  can  hope  to  attain  this  degree  of 
certainty.  He  should  not,  however,  relax  in  his  efl()rts 
until  he  has  attained  some  approach  to  it.  Much  de- 
pends upon  the  correctness  of  the  eye  and  the  judgment; 
much  more  perhaps  upon  experience,  which,  as  Shake- 
speare says, 

 "Is  by  Industry  achieved, 

And  perfected  by  the  swift  course  of  time.'* 

In  forming  certain  kinds  of  letters — Egyptian  and  old 
English,  for  instance — it  is  advisable  to  have  four  hori- 
zontal lines ;  two  for  the  top  and  bottom,  and  two  others 
inside  of  these,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  example  (Fig.  1). 


48 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


T'ig-  1-      The  utility  of  these  lines  needs  scarcely  a 

•  word  of  explanation.    The     blocks/^  as 

the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  Egyptian  let- 

.  ters  are  sometimes  called,  are  by  this  means 

 kept  perfectly  regular.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  j^roceed  without  these  extra  lines,  especially  if  the 
length  of  the  surface  to  be  written  upon  is  very  great. 
The  next  diagram  (Fig.  2)  shows  the  method  of  setting 
out,  and  will  at  once  commend  the  plan  to  the  begin- 
^.  ^  ner.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
^'  two  top  lines  and  the  two  bot- 
fBgBSSBBSSSSSSBa  ^^^^^  Hues  are  not  exactly  equi- 
BBlHi^^HlHB^^I  distant,  or,  at  least,  they  ought 
BHMWBlBwWBB  ^^^^  botton  Hues,  for 
^^SSSS^SSSSSSSlm  ^^^^  ^^^^y  should  invariably  be 

a  little  further  apart  than  the 
top.  If  it  were  not  so,  the  letters  would  be  ^Hop- 
heavy  "  and  present  a  clumsy  appearance. 

Ornamental  writing  sometimes  requires  a  fifth  line,  in 
order  to  keep  the  centres  regular.  Take  what  is  called 
a  scroll  letter,  as  the  E  or  the  I  in  Fig.  3,  and  it  will  be 

found  that  the  plan  there 
shown  is  the  only  one  tliat 
can  be  adopted  with  any 
certainty  as  to  the  result. 
Without  these  guides  it 
would  be  almost  impossi- 
ble to  execute  good  work ; 
and  when  it  is  considered  how  easy  it  is  to  make  any  num- 
ber of  parellel  lines,  it  would  })e  folly  to  mar  the  effect  of 
the  writing  by  proceeding  without  them.  In  fact,  the 
most  experienced  writers  ado]>t  the  sample  plan  here  in- 
dicated rather  than  run  the  risk  of  failure  in  the  end. 

In  old  English  or  Gothic  the  plan  of  double  lincs^ 
should  also  bo  adopted.  Capitals  in  this  alphabet 
should  be  rather  more  than  twice  the  height  of  the  small 
letters  ;  but  in  the  case  of  Koman  letters,  the  capitals  are 


SETTING  OUT  THE  WRITING. 


49 


generally  made  rather  less  than  twice  the  height  ol  the 
small  letters. 

In  forming  any  kind  of  slanting  letters,  as  Italic,  care 
should  be  taken  that  all  the  letters  slope  to  the  same 
degree,  but  no  mechanical  means  for  effecting  this  object 
should  be  had  recourse  to.  It  will  be  found  in  practice 
that  slanting  letters  are  by  no  means  difficult  of  regular 
formation.  The  great  thing  to  be  attended  to  is  to  see 
that  the  letters  whose  sides  always  slope,  such  as  A  and 
W,  fall  in  evenly  with  the  rest.  In  old  founts  of  print- 
ing letters,  it  was  customary  for  all  the  thick  strokes  of 
the  Italic  capitals  to  be  made  to  slope  to  exactly  the 
same  angle.  Hence,  the  letters  Ay  F,  and  were  not 
at  all  well  balanced  with  the  rest  of  the  alphabet,  but 
leaned  to  a  much  greater  extent ;  and  it  is  singular  that 
this  irregularity,  arising  as  it  does  from  an  obvious 
geometrical  error,  should  not  have  been  corrected  till 
the  present  century.  We  have,  however,  dwelt  fully 
upon  this  subject  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 
5 


CHAPTER  IV. 


COMMON  ALPHABETS   AND  NUMERALS. 

The  many  different  alphabets  now  in  common  use 
are  remarkably  clear  and  intelligible,  presenting  no  in- 
tricate combinations  of  design,  such  as  those  which 
mark  the  ehiborate  workmanship  of  the  early  book  illu- 
minators. Perspicuity  is  indispensable  in  modern 
alphabets.  We  have  no  time  to  waste  in  stripping  the 
web  from  the  curious  and  sometimes  over-wrought  ini- 
tial or  uncial  letters,  in  order  to  discover  what  they 
really  are.  When  the  printing  press  was  not,  and  vyheu 
the  scribe  and  the  artist  were  profitably  employed,  in 
producing  illuminated  books  for  the  learned  and  the 
rich,  the  highly-elaborated  and  cleverly-executed  pages 
were  not  intended  to  be  glanced  at,  skimmed  over, 
thrown  to  one  side,  and  no  more  thought  about.  They 
were  far  too  scarce  and  too  valuable  for  that.  The 
ornamental  garbs  in  which  the  letters  were  presented 
were  meant  to  be  looked  at,  admired,  and  prized  by 
future  generations.  They  were  "things  of  beauty,^' 
and  it  was  intended  they  should  remain  "joys  for  ever." 

In  this  utilitarian  age,  when  everything  is  at  full 
pressure,  and  we  move  on  at  express  railway  speed,  it  is 
of  paramount  importance  that  our  written  language 
should  be  as  readily  understood  through  the  medium 
of  the  eye,  as  it  is  that  oral  language  should  strike  upon 
the  tympanum  of  the  ear  as  soon  as  it  is  uttered.  To 
this  facilitation  of  the  interchange  of  ideas  all  our  modern 
alphabets  contribute.  Bit  by  bit  they  have  been  divest- 
50 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERALS.  51 


ed  of  all  unnecessary  accessories ;  and  now  we  can  boast 
of  possessing  a  thoroughly  intelligible  and  practical  set 
of  literal  characters  as  the  representatives  of  articulate 
sounds. 

The  Times  newspaper  of  December  28th,  1859,  admir- 
ably dwells  upon  this  subject.  "  Happily  for  us,^'  the 
writer  says,  the  written  symbols  employed  by  the  Ro- 
mans, which  are  now  the  chief  medium  of  expression 
for  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  America,  Australia,  and 
the  greater  part  of  civilized  Africa,  reflect  exactly  the 
rough  and  stalwart  energy  which  made  Rome  to  Europe 
what  we  are  to  the  world.  They  have  bestowed  on  us 
an  alphabet  as  practically  effective,  and  as  suited  to  the 
capabilities  of  human  vision,  as  any  that  could  have 
been  devised.  This  alphabet  of  ours  is  like  an  English- 
man's dress — plain  and  manageable;  not  very  artisti- 
cally arranged,  it  may  be,  nor  remarkable  for  copious- 
ness or  flow  of  outline,  but  sufficiently  elastic  and 
capable  of  extension.  Its  symbols  have  certainly  no 
graceful  curves  like  the  pictui-esque  Persian  ;  but,  better 
than  all  flourishes,  each  letter  has  plain,  unmistakable 
features  of  its  own.'' 

The  natural  tendency  of  all  writing  has  been  towards 
legibility  and  distinctness.  Where  points  of  resemblance 
between  different  letters  or  numerals  threatened  to  inter- 
fere with  the  legibility  of  the  writing,  they  have  been 
changed  so  as  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  their  clash- 
ing. Nor  have  these  modifications  and  alterations  been 
so  slight  or  unimportant  as  might  at  first  be  sujjposed. 
The  old-fashioned  f  (for  s)  has  been  altogether  discon- 
tinued. The  difficulty  of  distinguishing  between  f  and 
f  (s  and  f)  must  have  been  very  trying  to  children 
learning  to  read  and  to  near-sighted  adults;  and  so 
nearly  did  these  forms  resemble  each  other,  that  a  reader 
would  occasionally  have  to  depend  upon  the  context  to 
discover  \\  hich  was  which."  Then,  whenever  the  small 
e  and  t  came  together,  they  were  joined  as  one  letter. 


52 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


thus  S: ;  the  c  in  this  connection  resembling  in  every 
respect  the  letter  e.  And,  curiously  enough,  when  et 
(for  "and,")  occurred,  the  two  lettei-s  were  joined  to- 
gether, thus^ ;  so  that  the  c  in  the  former  cases  became 
e  in  the  latter  !  Some  of  the  capitals  also  have  under- 
gone alteration ;  and,  altogether,  we  now  possess  a  set  of 
exceedingly  clear  and  intelligible  alphabets. 

The  numerals  in  common  use,  which  are  of  Arabic 
extraction,  have  undergone  some  remarkable  changes 
since  the  ])eriod  of  their  introducti(m  into  Europe,  which 
is  variously  assig\ied  to  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  four- 
teenth centuries.  The  use  of  these  numerals  was  origin- 
ally confined  to  men  of  science,  who  found  them  invalu- 
able for  astronomieal  purposes  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
fifteenth  century  that  they  had  become  at  all  general. 
Chaucer  makes  mention  of  "figures  newe,^'  no  doubt  in 
allusion  to  the  Arabic  numerals,  which,  in  his  day,  had 
asserted  their  superiority  over  the  old  and  cumbrous 
Roman  symbols.  It  is  perfectly  clear,  however,  that  for 
a  long  period  the  similarity  in  the  forms  of  some  of 
these  numerals  led  to  endless  confusion  ;  and  it  was  not 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  that  they 
assumed  their  modern  shape,  by  which  all  liability  to 
error  was  obviated.  Owing  to  the  great  similarity  that 
originally  existed  between  the  figures  ],  3,  and  5,  antiqua- 
ries are  not  altogether  agreed  as  to  the  dates  to  assign  to 
old  buildings  on  which  carvings  of  these  characters  are 
found.  A  notable  instance  of  this  occurred  in  the  case 
of  a  carving  on  a  wooden  beam,  over  a  great  passage,  in 
the  Half  Moon  Inn,  near  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge. 
Several  talented  gentlemen  have  persisted  in  reading  it 
as  1332,  and  ascribing  the  timber  house  in  which  it  was 
found  to  that  date  ;*  but  Mr.  Thomas  Wright  and  Mr. 
Mark  Anthony  Lower,  the  learned  anti(juaries,  have, 
with  much  greater  show  of  reason,  de(.*ided  that  the  nu- 


*  Journal  of  Arch.  Association,  vol.  ix. 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERALS.  53 


morals  are  1552,  and  that  the  building  is  of  that  date. 
Similarly,  Mr.  Lower  has  pointed  out  that  dates  at  May- 
field  Palace  and  at  Selnieston  Church,  which  have  been 
stated  to  be  of  the  fourteenth  century,  belong  really  to  the 
sixteenth,  the  fives  having  been  mistaken  for  threes. 
Then,  the  figure  seven  was  originally  formed  like  an  in- 
verted V,  thus  A  ')  subsequently  it  became  turned  in 
this  wise  > ;  and  ultimately  it  assumed  its  modern 
shape.  The  figure  one,  also,  which  was  originally  a 
straight,  sometimes  wavy,  line,  came  to  be  shaped  in  all 
res})ects  like  the  Roman  I;  and  it  was  not  till  compara- 
tively recent  times  that  it  has  been  invested  with  a  dis- 
tinctive form  of  its  own.  When  these  numerals  came 
to  be  used  for  common  purposes,  they  gradually  became 
individualized ;  and  so  far  did  the  alterations  go  in 
this  direction  that  beauty  of  form  was  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent sacrificed.  The  only  figures  that  were  kept  within 
the  limits  of  the  parallel  lines  were  0,  1,  2,  the  remain- 
der being  made  to  sprawl  out  above  or  below  the  line, 
as  the  case  might  be,  utterly  regardless  of  any  principle 
of  uniformity.  And  through  this  extension  above  and 
below  the  lines,  it  was  often  difficult  to  determine  dates, 
as  the  circles  of  the  6  and  9  became  o  when  the  tails  got 
defaced  or  broken  off.  On  the  bronze  coinage  of  this 
country,  the  old-faced  figures  are  employed,  with  this 
alteration,  that  the  nought,  instead  of  being  small,  is 
made  of  the  same  height  as  the  long  figures,  so  that  any 
confusion  in  consequence  of  the  defacing  or  wearing  out 
of  the  coin  will  be  avoided.  The  height  of  the  figures 
being  equal,  the  straggling  propensity  referred  to  has 
been  corrected,  whilst  their  distinctness  has  in  no  wise 
been  impaired. 

Through  a  long  series  of  years,  and  after  many  changes 
of  more  or  less  importance  have  taken  place  in  them,  we 
are  now  fortunate  in  possessing  sets  of  alphabets  and  of 
numerals  which,  if  not  quite  perfection  in  artistic  ar- 
rangement, are  nevertheless  thoroughly  practicable,  and 
5* 


54         SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


present  in  a  high  degree  that  symmetry  and  neatness  of 
ibrm,  without  which  a  thing  cannot  be  beautiful  or 
attractive.  There  is  nothing  of  Oriental  intricacy  about 
our  literal  characters.  They  are  in  all  respects  perfectly 
simple  and  manageable. 

The  Roman  letters  may  be  said  to  form  the  anotomy 
or  ground-work  of  all  modern  alphabets,  with  the  ex' 
ception  perhaps  of  the  Gothic,  which,  however,  can 
hardly  be  called  modern.  The  fundamental  forms  of 
the  Roman  characters  comprise,  as  it  were,  the  normal 
style,  and  all  varieties  of  them  the  abnormal.  TheSan- 
seriff  and  the  Egyptian  have  the  Roman  as  their  bases. 
Even  Italic  is  nothing  but  a  slanting  Roman,  and  every 
ornamental  letter  has  a  like  origin.  But  notwithstand- 
ing that  we  are  confined  to  this  one  common  alphabet, 
still  there  is  hardly  any  limit  to  the  variety  of  styles 
which  may  be  deduced  from  its  forms.  In  the  first 
place,  by  simply  omitting  the  tops  and  bottoms — the 
seriffs — of  the  Roman  letters,  and  making  all  the  re- 
maining strokes  of  one  thickness,  the  San-serilf,  orSans- 
seriff — that  is,  without  serilF — is  produced  ;  next,  by 
adding  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  same  thickness  to 
these  letters,  the  Egyptian  results.  From  these  we  have 
endless  abnormal  varieties,  more  or  less  ornamental  or 
fanciful.  Then,  again,  these  may  be  varied  by  changing 
the  relative  difference  between  the  thickness  and  thin- 
ness of  the  body  strokes  and  seriffs,  or  by  the  addition 
or  omission  of  certain  unessential  lines  ;  the  forms  of  the 
letters  may  be  made  up  of  grotesque  figures,  serpents, 
pieces  of  wood,  stones,  and  other  things;  and  then,  in 
addition,  the  forms  of  these  several  varieties  may  either 
be  condensed  or  expanded — that  is,  made  longer  and 
narrower,  or  shorter  and  broader. 

The  nomenclature  of  these  abnormal  varieties  is  rather 
a  matter  of  fancy  than  of  appositeness,  and  generally 
belongs  to  the  type-founders,  who,  however,  do  not  al- 
ways call  the  same  style  of  letters  by  the  same  name. 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERALS. 


£5 


What  one  calls  San-seriif,  another  describes  as  Gro 
tesqiie;  what  is  generally  known  as  Egyptian,  is  some- 
times called  Antique,  though  it  is  difficult  to  say  why, 
seeing  that  the  letters  so  designated  do  not  date  farther 
back  than  the  close  of  the  last  century.  Egyptian  is 
perhaps  as  good  a  terra  as  could  be  given  to  the  letters 
bearing  that  name,  the  blocks  being  charat^teristic  of  the 
Egyptian  style  of  architecture.  These  letters  were  first 
used  by  sign-writers  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  and 
were  not  introduced  in  printing  till  about  twenty  years 
later.  Sign-writers  were  content  to  call  them  "  blocli 
letters,"  and  they  are  sometimes  so-called  at  the  present 
day ;  but  on  their  being  taken  in  hand  by  the  type- 
founders, they  were  appropriately  named  Egyptian.  The 
credit  of  having  introduced*  the  ordinary  square  or  San- 
seriff  letters,  also  belongs  to  the  sign-writer,  by  whom 
they  were  employed  half  a  century  before  the  type- 
founder gave  tliem  his  attention,  which  Avas  about  the 
year  1810.  The  first  approach  to  either  of  these  two 
kinds  of  letters  was  made  by  Mr.  Caslon,  in  1785,  in  a 
fount  of  Roman  letters,  measuring  three  inches  in  height, 
which  were  undoubtedly  the  largest  that  had  ever  been 
made  at  this  period  ;  but  in  these  letters  the  thin  strokes 
were  enlarged  proportionately  with  the  thick,  and  the 
consequence  was  the  production  of  the  thick  Roman, 
now  generally  called  "  Clarendon,"  the  name  being 
probably  derived  from  the  fact  that  these  letters  were 
first  made  for  the  Clarendon  Printing-office,  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford.  The  first  ornamental  type  letters 
were  formed,  1785,  by  a  combination  of  miscellaneous 
pieces  of  bordering,  which  presented  a  very  singular  ap- 


^  The  term  "introduced"  must  be  understood  in  a  qualified 
sense,  inasmuch  as  square  or  ansjular  capitals,  correspondini^'  to 
San-seritF,  were  used  bytlie  early  book  illuminators     Astle  give- 
specimens  of  them  taken  from  MS>S.  of  tlie  seventh  and  eii^ht 
centuries.    Subsequently,  however,  they  seem  to  have  been  neg 
lected  and  were  not  introduced  again  until  the  period  mentioned. 


66 


SIGN  WEITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


pearance.  In  the  following  year  Mr.  Caslon  brought 
out  a  series  of  initial  letters  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  height,  the  ground  work  being  in  half  tint,  upon 
which  the  letters  were  left  "  open,'^  or  white.  Before 
this  (late,  however,  the  sign-writer,  following  the  exam- 
ple of  the  wood-engraver,  had  begun  to  invent  different 
ornamental  styles,  remains  of  which  may  still  be  found 
in  some  of  the  old  churches.  But  these  will  not  in  any 
respect  bear  comparison  with  the  work  of  modern  sign- 
writers. 

Many  persons  suppose  that  the  makers  of  printers' 
types  take  the  lead  in  introducing  new  designs  and  styles 
in  lettering,  but  there  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  this 
assumption.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  sign-writer 
is  enabled  to  take  pattern  from  the  letters  of  the  printer; 
but  it  is  seldom  that  he  can  do  so  with  much  advantage, 
the  writer's  letters  being  generally  invested  with  "  thick- 
ness,^' as  well  as  shadow,  and  it  is  not  every  design 
which  will  admit  of  these  additions  being  satisfactorily 
made. 

As  various  shapes  are  assigned  to  some  of  the  alpha- 
betic characters  by  different  writers,  it  is  now  our  pro- 
vince to  point  these  out  and  discuss  them,  with  the  view 
of  assisting  the  student  in  choosing  tliose  forms  which 
most  strongly  recommend  themselves,  and  to  give  him 
such  practical  hints  as  will  be  serviceable  in  his  course 
of  study. 

When  any  attempt  has  been  made  to  define  the  pro- 
portions of  the  letters  of  the  al[)habet,  it  has  invariably 
been  done  by  assigning  to  some  a  square,  to  others  half 
or  a  third  of  a  square,  and  to  certain  others  again,  of 
the  wider  capitals,  a  third  more  than  a  square.  Whit- 
tock,  in  his  "  Painters'  and  Glaziers'  Guide,"  published 
in  1841,  devotes  two  or  three  pages  to  the  subject  of 
sign- writing,  in  the  course  of  which,  S})eaking  of  the 
Roman  capitals,  he  says  that  "  twenty -two  of  the  letters 
are  formed  in  a  perfect  square,  viz :  ABCDEFGHKL 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERALS.  57 


NOPQRSTUVXYZ.  Letters  I  and  J  are  formed  in 
an  upright  parallelogram,  half  the  size  of  the  square ; 
and  the  letters  M  and  W  in  a  horizontal  parallelo- 
gram one-third  larger  than  the  square."  Now,  it  must 
be  perfectly  obvious  tliat  the  whole  of  the  twenty-two 
letters  mentioned  ought  not  to  be  of  exactly  the  same 
width,  and  that,  if  they  were  so  formed,  some  would 
look  unduly  extended,  whilst  others  would  appear 
slightly  elongated  or  compressed.  A  moment's  reflec- 
tion would  convince  the  veriest  novice  in  the  art,  that 
the  letters  I  and  J  could  not  be  proportionately  formed 
if  half  a  square  were  assigned  to  each.  The  J  ought, 
of  course,  to  occupy  a  greater  space  than  the  I.  Any 
rules,  therefore,  tor  tlie  ])roportions  of  letters  must  be 
regarded  as  merely  ajiproximative.  The  experienced 
eye  is  the  best  guide  in  tliis  matter.  The  writer  should 
familiarize  himself  with  the  forms  of  the  letters,  noting 
carefully  the  grounds  of  difference  in  each  of  them,  so 
that  any  disproportion  in  those  drawn  may  be  detected. 

It  may  be  here  observed,  as  a  rule  that  can  be  de- 
pended upon,  that  the  projecting  lines  or  "  seriflV — for- 
merly called  by  type-cutters  the  "  footing"  and  the 
"topping" — of  the  Roman  letters  should  extend  right 
and  left  a  distance  equal  to,  or  rather  greater  than,  the 
thickness  of  the  down  stroke,  sometimes  called  the 
"  stem"  of  the  letters.  The  bottom  of  the  stem,  or,  as 
Moxon  termed  it,  "  fat  stroke,"  should  curve  ofP  grace- 
fully towards  the  end  of  the  base  line;  whilst  the  top 
may  be  either  straight,  forming  an  obtuse  angle  with  the 
down  stroke,  or  curved,  according  to  fancy. 

The  letters  B  E  F  H  and  X,  which  have  divisons 
or  cross-bars,  should  have  those  divisions  or  cross-bars 
not  quite  in  the  centre,  but  a  trifle  nearer  the  top.  A 
and  Y  are  also  divided,  but  these  divisions  shoidd  be 
about  midway  between  the  top  and  bottom  lines. 

The  small  Roman  letters  occupy  about  half  the  height 
of  the  capitals.    The  tops  of  the  ascending  letters,  b,  d, 


58  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


f,  h,  k,  and  1,  should  be  made  as  high  as  the  top  of  the 
capitals;  and  the  descending  letters — g,j,  p,  q,  and  y — - 
should  extend  below  the  line  in  the  same  proportion  as 
the  others  do  above  it. 

Some  persons  who  profess  to  be  writers  do  not  even 
take  the  trouble  to  place  the  thick  and  thin  strokes  of 
the  Roman  capitals  in  their  proper  places.  It  is  not  an 
uncommon  thing  in  country  villages,  and  sometimes  even 
in  towns,  to  see  the  thick  strokes  of  A,  M,  V,  Y,  or  W, 
placed  on  the  wrong  side.  Now  this  must  be  the  result 
ot  sheer  ignorance  or  carelessness.  In  case  of  doubt,  a 
glance  at  a  printed  book  would  at  once  set  the  matter  at 
rest.  But  there  is  a  simple  rule  by  which  even  a  refer- 
ence to  printed  matter  is  obviated.  If  the  writer  were 
to  imagine  that,  instead  of  a  sable  pencil,  he  had  to  make 
the  letters  with  a  pen,  and  that  he  must  begin  on  the 
left  hand  side  and  make  each  letter  without  lifting  the 
pen,  the  thick  and  thin  (or  down  and  up)  strokes  would 
be  indicated  without  further  trouble.  He  would  know 
that  a  pen  when  going  upwards  would  not  make  a  thick 
stroke,  and  that  when  it  was  guided  downwards  it  would 
not  make  a  thin  one ;  and  by  following  the  progress  of 
the  imaginary  pen  in  this  way  he  would  be  certain  of 
the  result.  In  making  M,  for  instance,  the  writer  would 
begin  at  the  bottom  of  the  left  hand,  and  then,  without 
moving  the  pen  off  the  paper,  he  would  make  the  whole 
letter.  The  first  stroke  being  upright,  would  be  thin, 
the  second  being  downwards,  would  be  thick,  the 
third  thin,  and  the  fourth  thick.  Whatever  implement 
a  letter  is  made  with,  if  it  be  considered  as  made  with 
a  pen,  the  thick  and  thin  strokes  will  be  at  once  indi- 
cated. 

The  letters  which  contain  curved  lines  are  generally 
considered,  and  unquestionably  are,  the  most  difficult 
for  beginners  ;  and  in  forming  them  it  is  advisable  to 
follow  a  few  given  rules  which  cannot  fail  to  lead  to 
something  like  a  satisfactory  result. 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERALS. 


59 


Probably  the  letter  which  of  all  others  (with  perhaps 
a  single  exception)  the  learner  invariably  finds  the  most 
difficult  of  symmetrical  formation  is  a  Roman  S ;  and  it 
is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence  for  even  practised  hands 
to  fail  in  making  this  letter  graceful  or  duly  proportion- 
ate to  the  others.  Nothing  tends  to  mar  the  effect  of 
the  work  so  much  as  a  badly-shaped  S,  and  therefore, 
it  is  important  that  any  difficulty  in  this  respect  should 
be  overcome  at  the  outset.  There  are  a  few  mechanical 
lines  which  may  be  adopted  in  the  first  instance  as  a 
guide  to  the  correct  formation  of  this  character,  but  these 
are  little  better  than  arbitrary,  and  should  be  dispensed 
with  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  For,  after  all,  if 
the  eye  be  not  trained  to  a  correct  percei)tion  and  an  ac- 
curate discrimination,  and  if  the  hand  have  not,  as  the 
result  of  experience,  the  power  of  exact  definition,  and 
precise  demonstration,  the  ultimate  result  will  be  inde- 
finite and  unsatisfactory.  But,  at  first,  the  beginner  will 
find  his  progress  aided  and  accelerated  by  adopting 
guide  lines,  to  which  in  practice,  he  will  have  neither  the 
inclination  nor  the  time  to  resort.  These  lines  must  ne- 
cessarily be  few  and  sim[)le. 

The  subjoined  wood-cuts  will  show  the  method  of 
procedure  in  regard  to  the  letter  S,  and  if  the  plan  here 
laid  down  be  followed  for  a  few  times,  the  beginner  will 
soon  find  that  he  cim  dispense  with  any  such  adventi- 
tious assistance  altogether,  and  yet  succeed  in  produ(!ing 
a  tolerably  well-proportioned  letter.  For  a  Roman  S, 
the  student  should,  in  the  first  place,  sketch  out  four 
parallel  lines — which,  it  may  be  observed,  are  not  neces- 
sary for  Roman  characters  generally — as  recommended 
for  Egyptian  letters,  p.  47.  Then  draw  two  vertical 
lines,  of  the  same  distance  apart  as  that  between  the  top 
and  bottom  parallel  lines,  so  as  to  form  a  square.  ISext 
draw  diagonal  lines  from  corner  to  corner  so  as  to  get 
the  centre  of  the  square.  Between  the  two  top  lines 
draw  an  arc  of  a  circle,  and  the  same  also  between  the 


(50  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


two  bottom  lines,  the  one  on  the  bottom  line  being  a 
trifle  larger  than  that  on  the  top,  and  of  course  they 
must  be  in  opposite  directions,  as  if  they  formed  parts 
of  one  circle.  The  annexed  diagram 
(Fig.  4.)  will  fully  illustrate  the 
method  here  indicated.  The  lines 
A,  B,  c,  D  form  a  square,  the  centre 
of  which  is  E.  The  arcs  do  not 
touch  the  sides  of  the  vertical  lines, 
because  if  they  did  the  S  would  be 
somewhat  expanded,  and  we  are 
now  dealing  with  a  fair-proportioned  letter.  Although 
the  centre  E  is  not  the  exact  centre  of  the  S,  still  it  is 
a  useful  guide  in  giving  a  balance 
to  the  middle  or  thick  curve  of  the 
letter.  The  position  of  the  centre 
will  be  seen  from  Fig.  5,  where  the 
H^^HIBI  arcs  are  joined  with  the  thick  strokes, 

letter  complete,    and   the  relative 
positions  of  the  several  parts. 
There  is,  however,  another  method  of  arriving  at  the 
proper  proportions  of  this  character,  and  that  is  by 
means  of  a  circle,  as  shown   by  the 
subjoined  representation,  Fig.  6.  The 

 manner  in  which  the  top  and  bottom 

arcs  fall  away  from  the  circle  at  their 
HI^S|W  extremities,  and  are  joined  with  the 
iJ^^^mi  seriffs,  is  here  clearly  shown.  This  is 
a  very  simple  method  of  procedure,  and 
by  carefully  turning  the  curves  wdiich 
form  the  body  of  the  letter,  the  most  inexperienced  will 
succeed  in  producing  a  well-shaped  S.  If  the  dotted 
lines  be  removed  from  the  examples  abov^e  given,  each 
letter  will  be  found  of  exactly  the  same  proportion,  as  in 
Fig.  7. 

It  is  very  easy  to  expand  or  condense  the  letter  S  by 


Fiff.  6. 


COMMOM  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERATES.  61 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


using,  instead  of  a  circle,  an  ellipse.  If  an  expanded 
letter  be  required,  the  horizontal  length  of  the  ellipse, 
technically  called  the  transverse  diam- 
eter, should  be  equal  to  that  of  the 
diameter  of  the  letter  O  in  the  same 
expanded  line.  This  will  be  found 
fairly  proportionate.  Fig.  8  will  ex- 
plain what  is  here  intended,  the  dotted 
line  corresponding  in  size  to  the  ex- 
pansion of  O.  Of  course,  if  the  S 
is  to  be  condensed,  instead  of  expanded,  all  that  is  ne- 
cessary is  to  place  the  ellipse  vertically,  keeping  its  hori- 
zontal width  or  conjugate  diame- 
ter, of  the  same  measurement  as 
the  O  elongated,  when  it  will  be 
exactly  proportioned  to  the  other 
letters  in  the  line. 

A  San-seriff  S  is  shaped  in  two 
different  ways.  Sometimes  the  ex- 
tremities are  finished  horizontally, 
and  sometimes  obliquely.  Of  these  two  methods  of  form- 
ation the  latter  is  that  which  most  commends  itself,  as  it 
is  neater,  and,  geometrically  considered,  more  accurate. 
That  may  be  demonstrated  in  this  way.  All  the  San- 
seriff  letters  are  substantially  of  -p^^  q 
one  thickness  throughout,  and  in 
their  general  character  all  the 
angles  are  right  angles.  Hence 
it  is  evident  that,  in  order  to  be 
consistent,  the  extremities  of  the 
S  should  be  brought  off  oblique- 
ly, or  at  a  right  angle  with  the  bend  of  the  arcs.  In 
Fig.  9  the  first  letter  is  represented  with  horizontal  ex- 
tremities, and  the  second  with  the  diagonal,  the^  latter 
being  preferable,  not  only  on  account  of  its  being  in 
geometrical  keeping  with  the  straight  letters,  but  because 
it  leaves  the  letter  more  open  for  shading.  The  same 
6 


G2 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


Fig.  10. 


Fiff.  11. 


principle  applies  to  the  otlier  curved  letters,  C,  G,  J, 
and  Q.  The  next  figure  (10)  is  an  exact  copy  of  a  prin- 
ter's C,  with  the  extremities  finished  horizontally,  in- 
stead of  obliquely,  the  form  of  which  is 
very  objectionable  in  sign-writing. 

As  an  argument  against  this  position,  it 
may  be  urged  that  the  strokes  of  the  let- 
ters, which  are  composed  of  oblique  lines 
— such  as  A,  K,  V,  etc. — are  not  inter- 
sected at  right  angles,  and  that  these, 
being  exceptional,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  curved  let- 
ters should  not  come  under  the  same  category.  In  answer 
io  this,  it  is  sufficient  to  remark  that  uniformity  de- 
mands that  the  height  of  the  letters  should  be  equal, 

and  that  if  the  sides 
of  the  letters  formed 
of  oblique  lines 
were  cut  off  at  the 
top  or  bottom  at 
right  angles,  this 
uniformity  would 
be  destroyed.  For  instance,  what  would  be  thought  of 
the  calibre  of  the  writer  who  formed  these  oblique-sided 

letters  upon  the  principle  of 
rigid  right  angles,  as  in  Fig. 
11  ?  It  w^ill  bo  seen  at  once 
that  the  uniformity  which  is 
so  essential,  is  here  absolute- 
ly destroyed  ;  Avhereas  in  the 
case  of  curved  letters,  uni- 
formity is  greatly  aided  by  having  the  extremities  cut 
off  at  right  angles  with  the  turn  of  the  curve. 

It  is  the  more  desirable  that  the  course  recommended 
sliould  be  followed,  inasmuch  as  it  enables  a  greater 
distinction  to  be  made  between  the  letters  C  and  G, 
"wliich,  in  San-seriff  characters,  are  very  nearly  alike, 
•^^)ecially  if  the  horizontal  intersection  of  their  width 


Fi£?.  12. 


COMMON  ALPTTABT^.TS  A^Tf  NITMEr.ALS. 


63 


bo  adopted.  These  letters  sliould  take  the  sliape  they 
respectively  assume  in  the  subjoined,  Fig.  12.  There 
is  here  sufficient  distinction  between  the  two  for  any 
practical  purpose;  but  if  the  lower  extremity  of  the  C 
were  cut  across,  as  it  were,  horizontally,  it  would,  to  a 
certain  extent,  clash  with  the  G,  and,  in  addition,  it 
would  present  a  heavy  and  clumsy  appearance. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  some  tyjic-cutters  and  wri- 
ters make  the  lower  portion  of  a  San-seritf  G  very 
similar  to  an  Egyptian  G,  Fig.  13.  This  certainly  has 
the  advantage  of  distinctness,  but  it  has 
the  great  disadvantage  of  being  totally  out 
of  character  with  the  remainder  of  the 
San-seriif  alphabet.  On  an  Egyptian 
G,  it  is  quite  appropriate,  inasmuch  as  the 
Egyptian  is  an  alj)habet  Ibrmed  essentially 
of  blocks,^'  which  is  its  speciality.  True, 
on  the  above  (Fig.  13)  only  half  a  block  appears — that 
is,  it  does  not  extend  right  and  left  as  an  Egyptian 
block  woulvd  do ;  still  it  is  a  whole  half  too  much,  and 
should  be  omitted.  As  a  general  rule,  the  use  of  all 
exceptional  adjuncts — everything  that  is  not  Fig.  14. 
in  keeping  with  the  general  cliaracter  of  the 
Avhole  body  of  letters  employed — should  be 
discountenanced. 

Formerly  it  was  the  custom  to  add  a  foot 
to  the  Roman  C,  as  in  Fig.  14.  This,  how- 
ever, is  quite  unnecessary,  and  is  rather  a 
disfigurement  than  otherwise.  It  is  now  seldom  used 
in  this  country,  except  by  writers  of  very  antiquated 
notions  ;  but  in  France  and  on  the  continent  generally 
it  is  still  commonly  employed.  The  continental  sign- 
writers  are  far  behind  those  of  this  country,  which  is 
rather  singular,  considering  the  advanced  state  of  art 
generally,  and  of  decorative  art  in  particular,  across  the 
Channel.  They  have  not  devoted  so  much  attention  to 
the  art  of  sign-writing  as  it  has  received  in  this  coun- 


64 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


try  of  late  years.  Their  letters  and  fio^ures  are  most 
badly  formed,  and  devoid  of  tasteful  ornament;  in  fa(;i, 
they  seem  to  have  entirely  overlooked  this  bran(;h 
of  painting.  The  letters  most  in  vogue  with  them  are 
miserably  attenuated,  and  generally  compressed.  This, 
however,  cannot  of  itself  be  objected  to,  as  every  nation 
has  its  characteristic  style;  but  these  lean  and  con- 
densed letters — looking  for  all  the  world  as  if  they  were 
suffer* ng  from  atrophy — are  not  neatly  and  regularly 
formed,  and  it  is  to  this  particular  that  our  objection 
applies. 

It  was  a  rule  laid  down  by  Albert  Durer,  who  did 
not  consider  it  beneath  his  genius  to  treat  of  the  Roman 
capitals,  that  the  stem  of  these  letters  should  be  in  the 
proportion  of  one  to  ten  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  width  of  the 
tliicli  stroke  should  be  one  tenth  the  height  of  the  letter. 
Accordingly,  the  initial  letters  which  are  known  to  have 
been  designed  or  engraved  by  Durer  are  greatly  atten- 
uated ;  and,  in  a  modified  degree,  the  sign-writers  of 
Germany  and  France  have  followed  the  models  of  this 
distinguished  artist  up  to  the  present  day.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  stems  of  the  modern  English  Roman  capitals 
is  in  the  proportion  of  about  one-fourth  or  one-fifth  of 
the  height  of  the  letters.  Moxon  remarks  that  in  his 
day — two  centuries  ago —  the  stem  was  made  much 
fatter  than  formerly,  it  being  one-sixth  ])art  of  the 
length,  and  he  mentions  that  this  not  only  added  a 
great  grace  to  the  letter,  but  rendered  it  more  easy  to 
the  eyes  in  reading,  and  more  durable  either  for  inscrip- 
tions or  records.'^  The  Dutch  also  were  for  a  lono^  time 
celebrated  for  their  proficiency  in  the  shaping  of  letters, 
both  in  regard  to  written  and  printed  characters.  Hol- 
land was  formerly  regarded  as  the  great  emporium  for 
tlie  production  and  sale  of  art  tnanufactures,  and  artists 
flocked  there  as  to  a  market  where  their  services  would 
be  likely  to  be  in  demand.  The  com})etitiou  engen- 
dered by  this  assemblage  of  talent  was  not  without  its 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERALS. 


65 


fruit.  Many  artists  of  repute  gave  themselves  up  to  tlie 
perfecting  of  alphabetic  characters,  principally,  how- 
ever, confining  themselves  to  Roman  and  Italic,  capital 
and  small  letters ;  and  hence  it  was  that  our  early  Eng- 
lish type-founders  set  so  much  value  upon  the  letters  im- 
ported from  Holland.  Christofel  van  Dyck  was  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  letter-makers  of  the  seventeenth 
cent.iry,  and  though  his  Roman  capitals  approached 
neaier  than  those  of  any  of  his  contemporaries  to  the 
mocern  standard — or,  more  correctly,  the  standard  of 
the  last  century — still  they  were  far  from  perfection. 
For  the  period  in  which  they  were  formed  they  were 
certainly  advanced ;  and  so  highly  were  they  esteemed 
by  those  of  our  own  countrymen  who  took  an  interest 
in  this  subject,  that  Mr.  Moxon,  in  1676,  selected  them 
as  a  pattern,  and  laid  down  their  proportions  as  a  useful 
guide  to  ^'  writing-masters,  painters,  carvers,  masons,  and 
others  that  are  lovers  of  curiosity.^' 

In  the  foregoing  examples  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
top  arc  of  the  letters  S,  C,  G,  etc.,  is  a  trifle  smaller  than 
that  of  the  bottom.  This  must  always  be  the  case,  or 
the  letter  will  look  over-weighted  at  the  top. 

It  may  here  be  remarked  that  all  letters,  of  whatever 
denomination,  that  touch  the  line  with  a  curve,  or  Ro- 
man letters  that  come  in  contact  with  it  only  with  a 
point — A,  V,  and  W — should  extend  a  little  above  or 
below  the  line,  or  both,  as  the  case  may  be.  If  they  are 
not  made  in  this  way  they  will,  when  conjoined  with 
such  letters  as  B,  E,  H,  K,  etc.,  appear  shorter  in  com- 
parison with  them.  Should  the  writing  happen  to  be 
at  a  great  elevation,  and  the  spectator  have  to  look  up 
from  below,  or  even  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  street, 
the  apparent  smallness  of  the  curved  and  pointed  let- 
ters, as  compared  with  the  square  or  broad  letters,  will 
be  almost  incredible,  if  the  curves  and  points  do  not  ex- 
ceed the  limits  of  the  line.  In  the  case  of  large  writing, 
of  two  or  three  feet  in  height,  the  curved  and  pointed 
6=^ 


66 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


letters  slioalJ,  in  most  instances,  extend  as  much  as  an 
inch  or  two  inches  above  or  below  the  line,  to  prevent 
their  appearing  diminutive,  even  though  they  occur  in 
the  middle  of  a  word.  This  holds  good,  as  we  have 
said,  with  respect  to  small  writing,  but  in  a  lesser  degree, 
and  ought  never  to  be  lost  sight  of,  wdiether  the  writing 
be  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  or  at  a  greater  elevation. 

In  illustration  of  our  meaning,  we  have  selected  the 
following  example  from  the  specimen  book  of  an  emi- 
nent type-founder ;  and,  though  on  a  small  scale,  it  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  this  point  has  not  been  attended 
to,  the  O's  ap})earing  diminutive  in  comparison  witli  tlie 
otlier  letters,  though  in  reality  the  top  of  the  curve  would 
ton  h  the  line,  assuming  that  one  were  drawn  horizon- 
tally along  the  tops  of  the  letters : 

HOOK 

In  order  to  obviate  the  necessity  for  carrying  the  point 
of  the  letters  A,  V,  and  W,  through  the  line,  or  in  pre- 
ference to  it,  some  sign-writers  get  rid  of  the  point  alto- 
gether by  a  mode  of  forming  the  letters  which  can  hard  - 

ly  be  recom- 
mended. They 
cut  off  the  point 
altogether,  as  in 
Fig.  15.  Tiiis 
has  not  the  neat 
appearance  of 
the  fine  point 
of  the  acute  angle  ;  and  when  a  thickness  and  shadow 
are  added,  the  effect  is  anything  but  pleasing  or  satis- 
factory. 

Those  of  the  San-seriff  letters  whi(;h  contain  slanting 
members  are  sometimes  formed  upon  the  same  principle. 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NU?»rERALS. 


67 


Fig.  16.       Fig  17. 


This 


IS 


obviously  a 
The  letters 


X,  for  instance,  is  made  equal  to  nearly  two  widths  at 
the  top  of  the  first  perpendicular  stroke,  and  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  second,  as  shown  in 
the  annexed  example  (Fig.  16). 
But  the  more  common  way, 
and  certainly  that  which  has 
most  to  recommend  it,  is  to 
make  the  perpendicular  lines 
equal  in  width,  and  to  draw 
the  oblique  ones  from  the  in- 
nermost ano^les,  as  in  Fis*.  17. 
much  neater  letter  than  the  preceding. 
A,  M,  Vj  and  W,  should  be  similarly 
made,  or  they  will  look  thick  and 
heavy.  Though  M  is  a  wider  letter 
than  N,  yet  there  is  no  occasion  to  shorten 
the  middle  member,  as  some  writers  per- 
sist in  doing.*  (Fig.  18.)  It  is  better  in 
every  respect  to  bring  the  centre  down 
to  the  line,  but  it  is  not  necessary  that 
its  width  on  the  line  should  be  quite  as  great  as  that  of 
the  two  outside  members. 

There  is  one  other  letter  of  frequent  occurrence  which 
is  quite  as  difficult  of  symmetrical  formation  as  the  let- 
ter S  itself,  and  in  which  failure  is  quite  as  often  ap- 
parent, and  that  is  the  "  short-and,"  as  it  is  called  by 
printers,  namely,  &.t    Moxon,  writing  in  1676,  re- 


*  It  is  curious  to  notice  tlie  peculiarities  in  the  formation  of  let- 
ters wliicli  obtain  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  M  here 
indicated  is  almost  universally  met  with  in  the  West  of  England. 
We  have  noticed  repetitions  of  it  at  Plymoutli,  Exeter,  Barnstaple, 
and  even  so  far  south-east  as  Portsmoutli,  in  which  place  it  is 
quite  an  unusual  thing  to  meet  with  an  M  of  any  other  shape; 
whereas  in  most  other  parts  of  the  country,  a  letter  so  singularly 
lonned  would  call  forth  the  sneers  of  the  smallest  school-hoy. 

f  This  character  holds  a  somewhat  peculiar  position  in  our 
alphabet.  Its  name,  the  derivation  of  which  is  matter  of  un- 
certainty, is  variously  pronounced  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 


68 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


marked  that  of  all  the  characters  yet  made,  this  is  the 
most  troublesome,  it  having  no  less  than  ten  centres 
in  it,  and  consequently  so  many  arches  ; and  he  fills 
two  quarto  pages  in  showing  how  to  form  it,  but  as  his 
"  &  "  and  the  modern  one  are  very  different,  both  his 
example  and  explanation  are  now  valueless.  We  pre- 
sent two  examples,  showing  the  letter  in  symmetry  and 
out  of  symmetry;  and  in  order  that  the  ill-formed 
specimen  may  be  a  fair  one,  we  have  selected  it  from 
the  shape  assigned  to  it  by  Mr.  Moxon,  and  which  he 
so  much  extols,  in  preference  to  giving  an  original 


Tt  is,  however,  pretty  evident  that  the  names  by  which  it  is  known 
are  corruptions  of  the  same  words,  owing  to  a  general  resemblance. 
These  are  ampers  and,  ample-se-and,  ampuzzand,  apples-and, 
empnzad,  apusse-and,  and  empassy.  There  seems  to  be  little  doubt 
that  and  per  se  is  the  real  meaning  of  the  character,  per  se  being 
the  Latin  for  bp  itself.  In  old  spelling-books  it  was  customary  at 
the  end  of  the  alphabet  to  print  the  following  symbols,  with  their 
explanations,  thus : 

&c.  et  cetera. 
&  (per  se)  and. 

Children  were  taught  to  read  these  characters,  "et-c,  etcetera," 
and  "  et-per-se,  and,"  the  old  logogram  (et)  being  the  proto- 
type of  the  modern  &.  It  seems  clear,  therefore,  that  the  correct 
pronounciation  is  "and  per  se,  and,"  which  is  easily  susceptible 
of  the  corruptions  noticed  above.  This  hypothesis  gains  strength 
from  the  fact  that  the  expression  "A  per  se  A"  was  occasionally 
used  by  the  early  English  writers,  as  denoting  superiority,  and  in 
this  way  it  was  almost  synonymous  with  the  modern  "  A  I.'* 
Thus  we  find  in  Chaucer. 

'  O  faire  Creseide,  the  floure  and  A  per  se 
Of  Troye  and  Greece." 

And  in  Stevens's  "  Memoirs  of  Bradford,"  the  martyr,  in  one  of 
his  letters  addressed  to  Lord  John  Russell,  says,  "  My  good  lord, 
yon  are  A  p>€r  se  A  with  us,  to  our  comfort  and  joy  unspeakable." 
As  this  seems  to  have  been  a  customary  mode  of  expression,  it  i« 
nntiiral  to  suppose  that  the  words  per  se  would  be  applied  to  the 
character  wliich  by  itself  represented  the  word  ''and,"  and  that 
i  'k'  et  would  be  generally  adopted  as  a  convenient  contraction  of 
11  r('i)eafe(lly  recurring  word. 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  XmiER  VLS.  CO 


design,  which  it  might  ^ig  19 
be  thought  would  be 
exao^o:e rated.  Of  the 
following  examples 
(Figs.  19  and  20)  it 
need  hardly  be  pointed 
out  which  comes  under 
the  first  denomination 
and  which  under  the  second. 

This  letter  is  so  frequently  used  in  sign- writing, 
in  lieu  of  its  equivalent  "  and/'  and  it  is  often  of 
such  large  dimensions,  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance it  should  be  well  proportioned  and  evenly  balanced 
in  all  its  p  irts.  Some  writers  form  the  upper  extremity 
or  seriff  of  the  &  with  a  round  head;  and  others  with  a 
mere  "  topping."  Now,  of  the  two  methods  the  latter 
is  undoubtedly  that  which  most  commends  itself.  As 
we  have  before  insisted,  uniformity  of  (character  is  the 
great  essential  to  be  aimed  at,  and  it  will  be  at  once 
apparent  that  of  t!ie  two  the  triangular  extremity  is 
more  in  keeping  with  the  Roman  alphabet.  Formerly, 
there  were  several  circular  adjuncts  to  the  Roman,  and 
particularly  the  Italic  letters,  but  one  by  one  these  have 
given  way  to  the  seriff  or  triangular  termination,  which 
is  more  characteristic  of  these  alphabets;  and  the  only 
two  exceptions  that  now  remain  are  to  be  found  oc- 
casionally in  the  &,  and  always  in  the  capital  J.  It 
nnght  be  thought  premature  to  advocate  the  placing  of 
this  latter  letter  u])on  its  proper  footing,  so  that  it  may 
no  longer  remain  a  solitary  exception  to  the  whole  of 
the  alphabet;  but  that  in  the  course  of  time  it  will 
assume  a  shape  which  seems  naturally  to  belong  to  it, 
all  the  improvements  of  the  past  few  years  tend  to  indi- 
cate. The  J  formed  so  as  to  give  it  a  strict  family  like- 
ness must  resemble  the  foot  of  the  letter  G,  only  reversed, 
as  in  the  annexed  Fig.  21.  It  may  be  remarked  that 
the  reformed  J  does  not  present  a  very  singular  ap- 


70 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING 


Fig.  23. 


pearaiice,  and  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  only 
Fiff  31  invested  with  a  form  which  by  virtue  of 
its  being  a  member  of  this  particular 
family,  it  ought  to  assume.  This  would 
not  be  so  if  an  alteration  were  made  in 
the  opposite  direction,  by  which  one  of 
mimSg^  the  triangular  seriffs  were  invested  with 
a  circular  form.  Just  suppose  for  a 
moment  that  the  letter  G  was  divested  of  its  ordinary 
shape,  and  that  in  lieu  thereof  the  lower  extremity  was 
fashioned  like  the  present  J,  only  conversely;  the  effect 
of  this  would  beat  once  striking  from  its  monstrosity,  as 
the  family  likeness,  instead  of  being  enhanced,  wou 
only  be  tampered  with,  making  the  letter  appear  as  if  it 
were  an  alien,  belonging  to  a  family  of  half-castes.  It 
may  seem  a  strange  assertion  to  make,  but  it  really  is  a 
fact,  that  the  present  method  of  forming  a  J  is  equally 
as  absurd  as  it  would  be  to  form  the  G 
like  that  in  the  annexed  Fig.  22,  although 
years  back  it  was  often  so  formed.  The 
time,  however,  has  not  come  for  the  altera- 
tion here  foreshadowed,  which,  sooner  or 
later,  will  be  certain  to  follow  the  many 
judicious  improvements  which  have  already 
been  made  with  a  view  to  character  and  symmetry. 

We  now  come  to  another  letter  which  is  somewhat 
difficult  of  formation,  and  which  invariably  perplexes 
the  beginner,  and  that  is  R.  Perhaps  there  is  no  other 
single  letter  in  the  alphabet  which  is  so  variously  shaped. 
It  is  often  very  badly  formed,  but  this  must  be  the  re- 
sult either  of  carelessness  or  want  of  practice.  There  is  a 
groat  diversity  of  opinion  among  writers  as  to  the  exact 
sliipe  tlie  lower  right-hand  member  should  assume 
arul,  accordingly,  those  who  have  but  little  idea  o 
beauty  of  form,  persist  in  giving  it  a  curve  which  is  any- 
thing but  graceful.  As  iin  example  of  a  sign-writer's 
K,  the  following  cut  (Fi^.  23)  is  presented;  but  it  differs 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERALS.  71 


greatly  from  that  of  the  type-cutters.  The  turning  up 
of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  R,  as  in  a  printing  letter^ 
is  not  suitable  for  sign-writing.  Besides 
being  in  the  way  of  the  shadow  and 
thickness  when  these  are  added,  the 
turned-up  or  hook-shaped  foot  is  not  so 
handsome  as  that  given  in  the  subjoined 
example,  to  say  nothing  of  its  unnecessary 
proximity  to  the  succeeding  letter,  what- 
ever it  may  be. 

A  little  care  and  attention  will  enable  any  one  to  con- 
quer any  difficulty  which  may  present  itself  in  regard  to 
this  letter,  upon  which,  by  the  way,  much  of  the  beauty 
of  the  work  will  depend.  A  San-seriff  R  is  sometimes 
made  with  the  lower  member  curved,  and  sometimes  with 
it  straight,  but  the  writer  must  exercise  his  own  choice 
as  to  which  plan  he  will  adopt.  If  a  preference  can  be 
given  to  either,  it  should  undoubtedly  be  to  the  straight 
member.  Of  course,  before  the  addition  of  the  foot  or 
lower  member,  the  letter  is  in  all  respects  a  perfect  P,  the 
loop  being  neither  more  nor  less  extended. 

And  here  it  may  be  as  well  to  observe  that,  in  form- 
ing the  letter  B,  the  top  bow  should  be  a  trifle  smaller 
than  the  bottom  one ;  and  the  same  with  regard  to  the 
letter  E,  the  top  limb  should  be  a  trifle  smaller  and 
shorter  than  the  bottom.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to 
maintain  a  proper  balance.  For  the  same  reason,  an  L 
should  have  the  projecting  limb  somewhat  shorter  than 
the  corresponding  limb  of  the  E.  This  will  prevent  the  let- 
ter with  which  it  may  be  in  companionship  from  appear- 
ing unduly  detached,  in  consequence  of  the  open  space 
necessarily  occasioned  by  the  barrenness  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  L.  When  the  Roman  E  and  S  come  to- 
gether, care  should  be  taken  to  make  allowance  for  the 
want  of  seriffs  between  the  two  letters ;  for  if  they  be 
placed  exactly  the  same  distance  apart  as  those  letters 
which  have  seriffs,  they  will  appear  much  nearer  to  each 


72         SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


other  than  the  rest.  As  an  exam})le,  notice  the  diflPer- 
ence  even  in  this  small  print — ES  and  ME ;  the  seriifs 
on  the  M  and  E  separating  those  two  letters,  whereas 
the  thick  strokes  of  the  E  and  S  almost  touch  each 
other. 

The  letter  though  comparatively  seldom  occurring, 
has  undergone  a  good  many  changes,  as  regards  its  sin- 
gle appendage.  Not  very  long  ago  we  find  it  sha])ed 
thus,  Subsequently  it  assumed  a  more  graceful  form, 
thus,  Q  ;  but  this  too  nearly  resembled  the  figure  2  ; 
and  latterly  it  has  been  brought  to  greater  perfection  by 
simply  placing  the  tail  through  the  bottom  of  the  O, 
thus  Q,  by  which  it  is  kept  within  reasonable  limits,  and 
that  great  point  to  which  all  modern  improvements  have 
tended — namely,  symmetry — has  been  kept  in  view.  As 
this  is  ^the  only  letter  of  the  ordinary  capitals  which 
tj'ansgresses  the  boundary  of  the  line,  it  is  but  reasona- 
ble to  suppose  that  it  will  yet  undergo  further  altera- 
tion, so  that  its  exceptional  character  in  this  particular 
will  be  done  away  with.  But  how  this  will  be  effected 
it  is  not  easy  to  conjecture.  Possibly  the  shape  of  the 
ancient  Q  will  supersede  the  present  isolated  character ; 
or,  it  may  be  that  some  other  modification  may  be 
thougiit  more  suitable.  Seeing  that  this  letter  is  alwaya 
followed  by  U,  there  is  no  reason  wdiatever  why  the  tail 
should  project  below  the  line.  It  would  be  different  if 
tlie  Q  were  liable  to  be  followed  by  the  A,  wdiich,  how- 
ever, is  never  the  case. 

With  regard  to  slanting  letters,  which  are  called  Italic, 
tlie  chief  object  should  be  to  ensure  that  they  all  slope  to 
the  same  degree — an  angle  of  about  70  being,  perhaps, 
more  generally  adopted  than  any  other.  The  letters 
wherein  failure  in  this  respect  is  most  often  found  arc 
Ay  V,  W,  X,  and  F,  and  to  these  may  be  added  S.  la 
ancient  types  these  letters  invariably  slant  at  a  much 
more  acute  angle  than  the  others,  the  thick  strokes  be- 
ing formed  parallel  to  the  thick  strokes  of  the  other  let- 


COMMON  ALPHABETS   AND  NUMERALS. 


73 


ters,  whereas  a  moment's  reflection  will  show  that  this 
should  not  be.  Tai^e  the  subjoined  as  a  fair  specimen 
of  the  old  Italic,  wherein  this  peculiarity  is  at  once  ap- 
parent : 

HEAVEN. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  A  and  Fin  this  line  slope  at  a 
different  angle  altogether  from  the  other  letters,  giving 
to  the  whole  an  irregular  appearance.  There  is  a  very 
simple  rule  by  which  the  whole  of  the  Italic  letters 
may  be  made  to  slope  uniformly.  If  we  take  the  Ro- 
man A  for  instance,  ^.  ^.  „^ 
and  place  it  in  a  square  ^'^'^^^ 
with  a  line  down  the 
centre,  as  in  Fig,  24, 
and  then  make  the  two 
sides  of  the  square  slope 
to  the  same  degree  as 
the  thick  down  strokes  of  the  Italics,  the  A,  formed  as 
in  the  square,  will  slant  to  the  proper  degree,  as  in 
Fig.  25. 

The  cause  of  this  w^ant  of  general  parallelism  in  the 
sloping  is  so  self-evident  that  it  needs  not  to  be  pointed 
out.  The  marvel  is  that  it  should  have  passed  current 
for  some  two  centuries  before  any  type-cutter— and  pos- 
sibly any  sign-writer — should  have  ventured  upon  a 
correction.  But  it  is  still  more  marvellons  to  think  that, 
after  the  much  desiderated  correction  had  been  applied, 
an  attempt  should  recently  have  been  made  to  introduce 
tliese  old  irregular  letters  again  to  the  public  notice;  for 
the  vagaries  of  fashion  have  of  late  brought  into  use  in 
the  printing  trade  several  kinds  of  old-faced  types,  of 
which  the  foregoing  is  by  no  means  the  worst  specimen  ; 
and  the  infection  has  in  some  degree  been  caught  by  the 
sign-writer.  It  is  often  said  that  there  is  no  accounting 
for  taste,  and  the  re-introduction  of  these  primitive  un- 


74  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 

polished  alphabets,  which  are  utterly  devoid  of  grace  or 
symmetry,  is  another  illustration  of  that  hackneyed  truism. 
In  order  that  our  objection  to  the  "  ancient"  letters  may 
be  better  understood,  we  present  the  accompanying  con- 
trast between  the  "  old-faced"  and  the  modern.  The 
first  is  a  fair  specimen  of  what  is  considered  the  very 
perfection  of  the  old  letters,  and  the  next  is  a  line  of  the 
modern.  Any  one  with  the  least  pretension  to  good 
taste  will  at  once  discern  in  what  our  objection  consists. 
Here  is  a  specimen  of  the 

ANCIENT  TYPE, 

And  here  of  the 

MODEEN. 

We  have  thus,  on  the  one  hand,  a  hard,  an  irregular, 
and  unfinished  letter ;  and  on  the  other,  a  graceful,  sym- 
metrical, and  highly-finished  letter,  which,  in  obedience 
to  the  caprice  of  fashion,  has  in  many  instances  had  to 
make  room  for  the  former.  But  there  is  some  indica- 
tion that  this  absurdity,  like  all  fashions  that  have  their 
birth  in  bad  taste,  is  happily  passing  away,  and  the 
modern  letter  is  again  asserting  its  superiority.  It 
has  always  been  the  case  in  the  arts,  that,  after  periods 
of  extravaganza  and  bizzareriej  there  has  been  a  recur- 
rence to  sound  taste.  Positive  retrogression  is  against 
nature,  and  any  tendency  in  this  direction  will  most  as- 
suredly correct  itself.  The  adherents  of  the  old  irregular 
alphabets,  which  were  made  so  because  scarcely  any  one 
was  capable  of  making  them  better,  might  just  as  reason- 
ably advocate  a  return  to  the  rough  and  unplaned  machi- 
nery of  the  first  locomotive  steam  engines,  taking  as  their 
model  the  old  "Puffing  Billy,"  now  so  carefully  pre- 
served in  the  Patent  Museum  at  South  Kensington. 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMEEALS.  75 


Let  it  not  for  a  moment  be  imagined  from  the  pre- 
ceding observations  that  we  take  objection  to  Mediaeval 
alphabets,  properly  so  called,  or  indeed  to  any  alphabets 
which  have  due  proportions  and  symmetry  to  recommend 
them,  which  the  above  have  not.  On  the  contrary,  we 
hold  that,  for  certain  purposes,  such  as  ecclesiastical 
docorations  or  memorials  of  every  kind,  and  for  illumi- 
nation, there  is  nothing  more  appropriate  than  inscrip- 
tions in  the  Mediaeval  characters.  The  Anglo-Norman, 
the  Black-letter,  and  the  Church-text,  being  in  keeping 
with  the  early  ecclesiastical  architecture  and  memorial 
embellishments,  are  to  be  preferred  to  any  modern  letter 
for  any  of  the  purposes  indicated.  These  alphabets  have 
a  distinctive  character  of  their  own  which  has  never 
been  altered.  They  have  been  left  untouched  by  the 
hand  of  time,  and  accordingly  their  use  in  certain  cases 
is  to  be  commended.  We  do  not,  therefore,  object  to 
Mediaeval  alphabets,  as  such,  but  to  those  that  are 
ill-shaped  and  irregularly  formed.  It  seems  absurd  that, 
when  after  long  practice  and  immense  experience,  the 
most  competent  authorities  have  decided  upon  the  neatest 
and  most  desirable  forms  for  alphabetic  characters  to 
assume,  and  after  they  have  succeeded  in  cutting  these 
letters  with  a  degree  of  neatness  and  exactitude  which 
was  formerly  totally  unapproachable,  any  one  should 
prefer  the  letters  of  the  old  cutters,  who,  if  they  had  had 
the  ability,  would  doubtless  have  rejoiced  to  have  ex- 
ercised it  in  the  way  that  is  characteristic  of  the  modern 
letter-cutters. 

The  idea  of  introducing  the  Mediaeval  style  of  letter- 
ing is,  we  believe,  due  to  the  late  Prince  Consort,  wno 
saggested  that  the  inscriptions  in  the  Great  Exhibition 
of  1851  should  be  written  in  the  old  Roman  characters. 
This  suggestion,  having  met  with  approval,  was  carried 
out.  But  the  writing  there  was  pure  Mediaeval,  being 
based  on  the  best  models  of  the  great  masters,  as  ex- 
hibited on  memorial  tombs  and  monumental  brasses.  It 


76 


SIGN  WEITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


may  be  taken  for  granted  that  no  inferior  style  of  letter- 
ing would  have  found  favor  with  the  Prince  Consort, 
whose  taste  in  matters  of  this  kind  was  proverbially 
sound.  The  leading  publishers,  catching  at  the  idea 
thus  inaugurated,  ventured  to  publish  some  of  their 
works  in  the  "old-faced''  type,  which  was  as  near  an 
approach  to  the  true  Mediaeval  as  they  could  arrive  at; 
and,  as  if  this  was  not  going  far  enough,  they  printed 
upon  toned  paper  ;  so  that  not  only  was  the  old  type 
used,  but  the  paper  was  an  imitation  of  the  books  w^iich 
had  become  browned  by  age.  At  first,  the  old-style  type 
and  toned  paper  were  used  only  in  the  case  of  reprints  of 
old  standard  works;  subsequently,  new  books  were 
brought  out  in  the  same  style ;  and  within  the  last  four 
or  five  years  most  of  the  newspaj)ers  which  have  been 
started  have  followed  in  the  same  wake.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  year  1860,  the  bronze  coinage  was  issued, 
and  the  letters  forming  the  inscriptions  being  in  the 
rudest  style  of  the  last  century  (not  Mediaeval)  Roman, 
were  severely  criticised  by  the  public  press. 

There  can  be  little  or  no  objection  to  the  style  of  any 
alphabets  provided  the  letters  are  all  uniform,  well-pro- 
portioned, and  judicious  in  combination  throughout. 
Each  family  should  be  distinctive,  and  this  distinctive- 
ness or  individuality  should  not  be  partial,  but  entire. 
If  any  ornament  be  added  to  one  letter,  the  same  class 
of  ornament  should  be  added  to  the  whole  of  the  letters. 
There  must  be  no  irregularity  in  this  respec^t.  Each  and 
all  the  letters  must  be  in  strict  keeping.  Angular  letters 
should  be  angular,  and  only  angular  ;  scroll  letters  should 
be  scroll,  and  only  scroll ;  and  blocked  should  be  blocked, 
and  only  blocked  ;  and  this  holds  good  throughout  from 
A  to  Z.  This  is  indispensably  necessary  to  secure  per- 
fect uniformity,  without  which  the  most  highly  finished 
writing  would  be  unsatisfactory.  Groups  or  families  of 
letters,  so  long  as  uniformity  of  outline  be  preserved, 
may  be  as  various  in  their  distinctive,  individual  charac- 


COMMON  ALPHABETS  AND  NUMERALS. 


77 


ter  as  the  fancy  may  devise ;  but  the  moment  that  any 
departure  from  this  rule  takes  place,  the  result  will  be 
incongruous  and  unpleasant  to  the  eye.  The  same  holds 
good  as  regards  expanded  or  condensed  letters.  Con- 
dense the  A,  and  all  the  intermediate  letters  down  to  Z 
must  be  condensed  in  exact  geometric  proportion  ;  or 
expand  one  letter,  and  all  the  remainder  must  be  ex- 
panded proportionately.  This  is  an  absolute  rule  from 
which  there  must  be  no  departure. 

Disregard  of  the  principle  of  consistency  lies  at  the 
root  of  most  of  the  failures  in  sign-writing.  We  remem- 
ber a  writer  who  had  "  invented  a  new  style  of  letter, 
and  who  was  greatly  perplexed  because,  however  neatly 
he  might  execute  any  sign  in  this  particular  style,  the 
effect  was  not  agreeable.  The  invention  consisted  in 
adding  to  a  San-seriif  alphabet,  which  is,  of  course, 
straight  at  top  and  bottom,  and  is  essentially  square  in 
character,  a  semi-circular  projection  in  the  centre  of  each 
downstroke.  The  fact  was,  that  the  combination  was 
characterless  and  incongruous ;  and,  as  a  consequence, 
the  result  was  spotty  and  impleasant.  Circles  and  right- 
angles  have  their  proper  places,  but  a  mixture  of  the 
tw^o,  as  in  this  instance,  in  one  letter  produces  a  discord 
and  a  hardness  which  even  the  inexperienced  eye  readily 
detects. 

7* 


CHAPTER  V. 


ANCIENT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABET. 

We  have  thus  far  touched  only  upon  the  plain  alpha- 
bets which  are  most  commonly  used  both  in  writing  and 
printing.  As  these  form  the  basis  of  the  ornamental 
letters,  they  require  to  be  perfectly  mastered  before  any 
approach  to  success  can  be  expected  in  the  more  difficult 
combinations  which  an  expert  will  be  called  upon  to 
produce.  It  is  here  that  the  genius  of  the  painter  is 
most  severely  tested.  In  order  to  execute  the  compara- 
tively simple  forms  of  the  Roman  San-seriff*,  and  Egyp- 
tian alphabets  satisfactorily,  great  neatness  and  finish 
are  demanded.  The  angles  should  be  clean  and  true, 
the  various  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  straight,  the 
parallel  lines  regular,  and  the  curves  well  poised.  A 
considerable  amount  of  dexterity  is  necessary  to  attain 
perfection  in  these  particulars,  and  it  can  only  be  ac- 
quired by  much  practice.  But,  beyond  this,  when  the 
learner  comes  to  the  more  difficult  accomplishment  of 
ornamental  writing,  he  must  familiarise  himself  with 
the  general  principles  of  design  ;  for  obviously,  a  good 
painter  will  not  always  rest  content  with  copying  the 
productions  of  others,  however  much  they  may  have  in 
them  that  is  worthy  of  imitation.  As  in  the  higher 
branches  of  art,  the  most  original  artist  attains  the 
greatest  popularity,  and  his  works  conmiand  the  highest 
])ricos ;  so  it  is  in  regard  to  the  sign-writer.  The  great 
point  for  him  to  aim  at  is  originality.  And  in  this 
matter  the  field  is  practically  boundless,  there  being  really 
78 


A^^CIENT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS.  79 


no  limit  to  the  forms  which  may  be  given  to  the  alpha- 
betic characters. 

At  the  outset,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  guard  the 
beginner  against  an  extravagant  use  of  ornament.  As  a 
general  rule,  it  should  be  simple  rather  than  complex. 
And  whatever  style  of  embellishment  be  decided  upon, 
care  should  be  taken  that  it  does  not  detract  from  the 
legibility  of  the  lettering;  for  if  it  have  this  tendency, 
the  result  can  scarcely  be  deemed  satisfactory,  as  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  writing  has  to  serve  a  practi- 
cal purpose,  to  which,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  the 
decorative  accessories  are  subordinate. 

Then,  again,  it  is  of  paramount  importance  that  as 
regards  design,  the  style  of  lettering,  whatever  form  it 
may  assume,  should  be  harmonious.  Paradoxical  as  it 
may  sound,  there  must  be  unity  in  variety — that  is,  the 
variety  in  the  parts  must  not  destroy  the  unity  of  the 
whole.  Each  and  all  of  the  letters  must  be  modelled  on 
the  same  principle ;  and  taste  must  be  our  guide  in  de- 
termining the  suitableness  of  the  ornament  and  the 
quantity  which  it  is  desirable  to  introduce.  Want  of 
harmony  in  style  is  unquestionably  the  most  glaring  fault 
of  the  modern  sign-writer.  Speaking  upon  this  very 
point,  a  great  authority — Sir  M.  Digby  Wyatt — re- 
marks, with  regard  to  the  kindred  subject  of  illumina- 
ting, that  "  there  are  few  faults  more  common  in  modern 
work,  or  more  offensive  to  the  educated  eye,  than  the 
association  of  styles  of  lettering  and  styles  of  ornamenta- 
tion warring  with  each  other  in  the  properties  of  both 
time  and  form.''  This  remark  applies  with  equal  force 
to  the  art  of  the  sign-WTiter,  which,  by  the  way,  is  becom- 
ing more  akin  to,  and  partaking  of  the  nature  of,  book- 
illumination  on  a  large  scale.  Hence,  it  is  more  than 
ever  important  that  taste  should  be  cultivated,  in  order 
that  the  student  may  avoid  the  incongruities  of  style 
which  so  frequently  present  themselves,  and  be  prepared 
for  the  execution  of  that  quasi-illuminated  work  which 


80  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GI.ASS  EMBOSSING. 


is  beginning  to  develope  itself.  Lettering  based  upon 
the  principle  of  the  early  book-illuminations  is  now  to 
be  seen  on  the  facias  of  some  of  the  principal  shops  and 
show-boards  of  the  metropolis  ;  and  there  is  little  doubt 
that  ere  long  it  will  become  somewhat  general,  owing 
to  its  superior  Jittractiveness,  though  for  business  pur- 
poses its  adoption  will  always  be  checked  in  some  degree 
by  the  cost  of  its  production.  For  inscriptive  texts  in 
religious  edifices,  however,  the  use  of  illuminated  capi- 
tals and  Mediaeval  lettering  seems  likely  to  become 
pretty  general.  Sir  M.  Digby  Wyatt  recommends  the 
more  extended  adoption  of  this  species  of  writing  in 
clmrches,  and  though  it  is  too  much  to  expect,  as  he 
seems  to  do,  that  amateur  illuminators  will  lay  them- 
selves open  to  this  kind  of  work — requiring,  as  it  does, 
for  its  performance,  the  frequent  use  of  lofty  scaliblding — 
still  it  is  a  branch  of  art  which  sign-writers  and  decorative 
painters  may  carry  on  with  advantage.  In  his  "  Art  of 
Illuminating,'' this  gentleman  says:  An  elegant  and 
useful  ap})lication  of  the  art  would  be  to  enrich  ceilings, 
walls,  cornices,  string-courses,  panels,  labels  round 
doors  and  windows,  friezes,  bands,  chimney-pieces,  and 
stained  and  painted  furniture  in  churches,  school-rooms, 
dwellings,  and  public  buildings  of  all  kinds,  with  beau- 
tiful and  appropriate  inscriptions,  of  graceful  form  and 
harmonious  coloring.  Such  illuminations  would  form, 
not  only  an  agreeable,  but  an  eminently  useful  decora- 
tion. How  many  texts  and  sentences,  worthy,  in  every 
sense,  of  being  ^  written  in  letters  of  gold,'  might  not 
be  thus  brought  prominently  under  the  eyes  of  youth, 
manhood,  and  old  age,  lor  hope,  admonition,  and  com- 
fort." What  is  here  recommended  has  already,  to  a 
certain  extent,  been  carried  out.  In  several  modern 
churches,  the  j)olychromatic  architecture  has  been  re- 
lieved with  inscriptions  in  illuminated  Mediieval  char- 
acters, and  the  effect  has  been  much  a])proved  by  the 
leading   ecclesiologists.     Nor  is  this  an  extravagant 


ANCIENT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS.  81 


mode  of  enrichment.  Its  cost  is  far  less  than  might  at 
nrst  be  imagined  ;  whilst  in  point  of  durability  it  is 
quite  unobjectionable.  For  all  common  purposes  texts 
of  Scripture  could  be  painted  on  the  walls  in  two  colors 
only,  the  initials  being  red  and  the  other  letters  blue,  or 
vice  versa.  Of  course,  for  this  work  the  ancient  alpha- 
bets are  preferable  to  the  modern,  and  when  these  are 
employed,  the  accessorial  ornamentation  characteristic 
of  the  old  style  should  be  employed  also.  Thus,  in  the 
Mediaeval  period,  it  was  customary  to  begin  with  a  qua- 
trefoil,  painted  red  or  blue,  and  of  about  the  same  height 
as  the  letters.  This  figure  is  constructed  of  four  equal 
segments  of  circles,  either  intersecting  or  stopped  by 
angles  forming  a  cross,  thus,  ^  This  was  a  common 
figure  in  all  kinds  of  church  architecture  and  inscrip- 
tions. Then  to  be  strictly  accurate,  the  spaces  between 
the  words  must  not  be  left  open,  but  should  be  filled 
in  with  some  kind  of  stop,  floriated  ornament,  grotesque, 
or  "  powdering."*  These  powderings  were  often  noth- 
ing more  than  round  spots,  several  of  which  were  some- 
times grouped  together,  and  they  were  used  to  fill  up 
the  intervals  between  the  words  and  also  at  the  end  of 
the  writing,  when  it  did  not  reach  the  end  of  the  panel 
or  space  within  which  it  was  placed.  From  this  custom 
no  doubt  arose  the  vicious  practice,  from  which  certain 
country  writers  are  not  now  altogether  free,  of  placing 
a  full  stop  or  a  star  after  every  word.  Although  to  the 
more  experienced  workman  this  may  seem  to  be  in  de- 
fiance of  all  rules  of  punctuation,  yet  it  should  not  be 


*  Synonymous  with  "  besprinkled"  in  heraldry.  A  common 
form  of  powdering  was  the  gilded  stars  studded  in  well-arranged 
lines  on  a  blue  ground  for  ceilings,  which  were  considered  to 
have  a  natural  as  well  as  an  emblematic  allusion  to  the  heavens. 
Chaucer,  in  his  "  Cuckow  and  Nightingale,"  uses  the  terms: 

*'  The  ground  was  grene,  ypoudred  with  daisye." 


82 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


forgotten  that  there  is  at  least  a  precedent  for  it  in  the 
elaborate  work  of  the  Mediaeval  period. 

Tlie  letters  used  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies in  church  inscriptions  were  chiefly  Gothic  and 
Roman  capitals,  the  small  Roman  letters,  "  minuscules," 
or  "  lower  case,"  as  they  are  designated  by  printers,  not 
being  commonly  used  till  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  These  al[)habets  were  similar  to  the  modern 
Roman  type,  and  were  for  the  most  part  well  formed. 
Many  of  the  inscriptions  which  have  been  brought  to 
light  in  restoring  old  edifices  show  that  the  art  of 
inscriptive  painting  was  by  no  means  neglected  during 
this  period.  Of  course,  the  peynters"  who  were  capa- 
ble of  producing  the  beautiful  emblematical  designs  in 
ecclesiastical  buildings  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  not 
likely  to  fail  in  this  department  of  art.  Nor,  as  a  rule, 
did  they  fail  in  it.  The  majority  of  the  specimens 
which  have  been  preserved  are  excellent,  both  as  re- 
gards design  and  arrangement  of  colors. 

If,  therefore,  it  should  again  become  fashionable  to 
cover  our  church  walls  with  Scriptures" — and,  as  we 
have  intimated,  already  there  are  indications  of  a  revival 
of  this  ancient  custom — the  student  will  have  almost 
unlimited  scope  for  the  exercise  of  his  talents.  It  is  im- 
portant, therefore,  that  he  should  make  himself  acquaint- 
ed with  the  various  styles  of  design  which  have  obtained 
at  different  epochs,  so  as  to'  be  enabled  to  distinguish 
between  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  Celtic,  the  Byzantine,  the 
Romanesque,  the  Italian,  the  French,  the  Flemish,  and 
the  German  schools.  The  lettering  ought  always  to 
harmonize,  historically  and  artistically,  with  the  sur- 
rounding embellishments.  The  complicated  interlace- 
ment of  the  early  Celtic  or  the  Saxon  school  should  not  be 
mixed  up  with  letters  which  belong  to  the  present  cen- 
tury ;  the  elegantly  emblazoned  grounds  of  Oriental  and 
Byzantine  art  should  not  accompany  modern  San-seriff" 
letters ;  nor  would  it  be  an  evidence  of  good  taste  to 


ANCIENT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS.  83 


produce  an  admixture  of  the  Romanesque  style  of  orna- 
mentation with  a  "  black  letter"  of  the  period  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  But  even  if  there  should  not  be 
harmony  in  this  respect — if  the  style  of  lettering  and 
the  style  of  architecture  should  be  inconsonant  with  each 
other — still  the  inconsistency  and  want  of  taste  thus  ex- 
hibited would  be  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the 
mixed  style  of  decoration  which  is  now  so  commonly 
met  with  in  religious  edifices.  The  walls  of  churches 
are  often  made  to  assume  the  most  incongruous^  appear- 
ance possible.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  some 
huge  monument  of  the  most  barbarous  of  all  ages  in 
ecclesiastical  design — that  of  James  I.,  or  of  the  most 
heathenish,  that  of  Queen  Anne,  and  her  immediate 
successors — will  be  the  most  obtrusive  object  on  the  op- 
posite wall  of  the  church  which  we  are  entering.  Our 
Gothie  forefathers,  while  they  did  7iot  deface  the  church 
with  cumbrous  barbarisms,  or  desecrate  it  with  figures 
of  heathen  gods  and  goddesses — erected  in  honor,  it  may 
be,  of  impious,  immoral,  and  infidel  statesmen,  heroes, 
or  poets — did  make  the  walls  vehicles  of  instruction  and 
recipients  of  decoration,  often  highly  elaborate,  and  gen- 
erally not  a  little  adapted  to  their  places."*  It  is  im- 
portant to  enforce  the  adoption  of  a  pure  style  of  writing, 
that  shall  be  in  entire  accord  and  concord  with  the 
character  of  the  architecture  itself.  The  lettering 
should,  in  fact,  be  a  part  of  the  design,  and  not  present 
the  appearance  of  an  accidental  addition,  as  if  it  were  an 
afterthought. 

Whether  sign-writers  are  apt  to  fail  in  this  particular 
branch  of  decorative  art  or  not  it  would  be  premature  to 
say,  considering  that  they  have  hitherto  been  so  little 
called  upon  to  show  what  they  are  capable  of  in  this 
respect;  but  a  writer  on  illumination,  who  styles  him- 


*  Poole's  Lectures  on  the  Structure  and  Decoration  of  Church- 
es, 1845. 


84  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


self illuminating  artist  to  the  Queen," — whatever  that 
may  mean, — has  published  a  specimen  of  illumination, 
which  he  ironically  calls  the  model  outline  ;"  and  ho 
proceeds  to  observe  that  it  is  "  based  upon  no  principle 
whatever,"  remarking  that  "scrollwork,  having  neither 
beginning,  middle,  nor  termination,  and  preserving  a 
series  of  flourishes,  may  be  said  to  give  this  class  of  out- 
line a  distinctive  character,  under  the  generic  title  of 
sign-boarding.''^  The  author  in  question — D.  Lauraiit 
de  Lara — in  other  portions  of  his  work  speaks  of  sign- 
painters  with  something  approaching  contempt.  He 
might  at  least  have  waited  to  see  what  they  are  capable 
of  before  he  attempted  to  compare  all  the  anachronisms 
in  this  beautiful  art  to  the  productions  of  the  sign-wri- 
ter. For  our  part,  we  believe  that,  when  this  depart- 
ment of  writing  becomes  more  fully  developed  and  in 
demand  for  wall  decoration,  it  will  not  suffer  at  all 
through  the  shortcomings  of  the  sign-painter. 

Having  dwelt  upon  this  tempting  theme  so  far  in  the 
general,  we  now  come  to  more  detailed  particulars 
respecting  the  styles  of  lettering  which  have  obtained  at 
different  periods  in  the  history  of  this  country.  In  order 
to  give  a  clear  insight  into  the  more  general  characteris- 
tics of  Mediaeval  alphabets,  and  to  show  the  various 
changes  which  have  taken  place  in  them  from  time  to 
time,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  few  specimens,  the 
subject  being  entirely  beyond  the  scope  of  mere  letter- 
press description.  It  is,  however,  neither  expedient  nor 
within  the  limits  of  the  present  treatise  to  give  any  ex- 
amples of  elaborate  illuminated  initials  and  borderings, 
such  as  may  be  found  in  most  works  on  the  subject. 
These  will  seldom  be  required  by  the  sign-painter,  and 
if  they  should  happen  to  be,  a  reference  to  the  pub- 
lished specimens  will  generally  be  sufficient.* 


*See  "  Art  of  Illumination,"  by  Henry  Shaw,  who  gives  sev- 
eral beautiful  examples  in  chronic  lithography,  from  Fust  and 


ANCIENT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS.  85 


It  is  not  at  all  likely  that  the  sign-writer  will  ever 
be  called  upon  to  execute  lettering  in  the  styles  which 
prevailed  prior  to  about  the  12th  century,  inasmuch  as 
the  primary  object  of  all  modern  writing  must  be  to 
afford  information,  and  to  this  end  it  would  be  of  little 
use  to  put  up  the  old  Anglo-Saxon  or  Celtic  characters 
— the  shapes  of  which  are  now  little  more  than  archaeo- 
logical curiosities,  and  would  tend  rather  to  confound 
than  to  enlighten.  However  desirable  it  may  be  to  give 
our  ecclesiastical  edifices  an  antiquated  appearance  by  the 
adoption  of  early  Mediaeval  writing,  to  do  this  at  the 
cost  of  legibility  would  be  simply  absurd.  The  letters 
must  not  be  so  unlike  those  at  present  in  every-day  use 
as  to  be  unintelligible.  The  Anglo-Saxon  C,  lor  instance, 
which  was  formed  exactly  like  an  E  with  the  centre 
cross-bar  omitted,  thus,  E,  would  now  lead  to  confusion. 
The  letter  M  was  shaped  in  several  ways — sometimes 
like  the  annexed  figure  |m,  and  at  others  thus  gl> 
whilst  it  was  not  unfrequently  similar  to  an  inverted  W. 
We  often  find  S  represented  by  a  sort  of  Z,  thus,  S,and 
N  in  this  way,  JT-  Of  course,  it  would  be  folly  to  re- 
introduce these  obsolete  and  almost  forgotten  forms, 
which  would  be  utterly  unintelligible  to  the  great  mass 
of  the  people. 

Discarding,  then,  these  primitive  characters,  we  com- 
mence with  an  alphabet  of  about  the  twelfth  century, 
which  presents  no  peculiarity  that  may  not  be  readily 
understood,  all  the  letters,  the  original  shapes  of  which 
have  been  carefully  preserved,  having  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  those  in  modern  use  : — 


Schoeffer's  Bible,  1462,  the  Lansdowne  MS.,  1470,  and  otlier 
celebrated  illuminated  works.  Also  Sir  M.  Digby  Wyatt's  book 
on  the  same  subject,  a  condensation  of  which,  with  colored  speci- 
mens, can  be  procured  for  a  few  shillings. 


8 


86 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


XMffil^qpQRSfe 
TaVXY 

111  this  alphabet  it  will  be  observed  that  there  is  no  J 
or  W,  whicli  were  not  often  used  at  this  remote  period ; 
but  if  occasion  should  arise  for  the  use  of  this  old  alpha- 
bet it  would  be  advisable  to  add  these  letters  rather  than 
resort  to  their  early  representatives — viz.,  I  and  VV. 
J  is  simply  the  consonantal  form  of  I.  The  substitu- 
tion of  J  for  I  as  a  consonant  at  the  beginning  of  words 
dates  back  only  two  or  three  centuries.  The  letter  itself, 
however,  though  in  ancient  times  seldom  used,  existed 
before  the  Roman  Republic  came  to  an  end.  The 
separation  of  J  from  I  was  not  adopted  in  dictionaries 
and  other  works  of  reference  till  quite  recently  ;  but  we 
believe  it  is  now  done  universally.  The  letter  J  is 
always  followed  by  a  vowel.  Originally,  it  extended 
below  the  line  with  a  very  small  bend  to  the  left,  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  vowel  form  I.  Before  the  intro- 
duction of  J  by  the  early  printers,  the  letter  I  was  used 
by  them  both  as  a  vowel  and  a  consonant;  and  even 
now  it  is  so  used  occasionally.  The  name  John,  for 
instance,  is  still  spelt  with  an  I  by  some  persons,  but  the 
use  of  I  as  a  consonant  is  now  almost  obsolete.  In 
ordinary  penmanship,  however,  it  is  still  the  habit  of 
many  people  to  make  no  distinction  between  I  and  J, 
and  hence  arise  many  mistakes  in  proper  names.  This 


ANCIENT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS. 


87 


addition,  like  every  other  addition  to,  or  alteration  of, 
our  alphabet,  was  for  a  long  time  only  partial,  and  its 
form  underwent  some  minor  changes ;  but  when  its 
utility  became  manifest,  it  was  more  generally  employed, 
and  it  assumed  the  shape  with  which  in  all  modern 
alphabets,  it  is  invariably  invested.  Then,  as  to  W,  it 
was  not  till  the  sixteenth  century,  that  it  was  adopted, 
3xcept  in  very  rare  instances,  as  a  character  by  itself. 
Ptior  to  this  period  two  Vs,  not  joined  together,  served 
for  its  equivalent.  And  when  at  last  it  was  made  a  dis- 
tinct letter,  the  Vs  overlapped  each  other  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  thick  strokes  nearly  touched,  and  the 
appearance  was  anything  but  pleasing.  The  reason  why 
this  letter  is  called  double-u  instead  of  double-v,  is 
because  U  was  identical  with  V  in  the  Latin,  and  in  the 
more  early  form  of  the  English  language.  Although  U 
and  V  always  had  two  sounds,  there  was  only  one  form, 
that  of  V — till  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century, 
when  the  U  was  introduced,  the  inconvenience  of  ex- 
pressing two  sounds  by  one  symbol  having  long  before 
been  observed.  To  Louis  Elzevir,  one  of  a  celebrated 
family  of  printers  of  this,  name,  who  flourished  at  Leyden 
about  the  year  1600,  belongs  the  credit  of  first  making 
the  distinction  between  the  V  consonant  and  the  U 
vowel  in  typography. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  other  specimens  of  about 
the  same  period,  in  which  some  of  the  letters  only  are 
slightly  varied,  the  general  character  being  maintained. 
The  following  is  illustrative  of  the  15th  century,  the 
letters  being  selected  from  the  Bedford  missal  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  known  under  the  name  of  "  Missal 
capitals."  We  would  have  the  student  mark  how  care- 
fully each  letter  is  slightly  ornamented,  and  how  exceed- 
ingly uniform  this  ornamentation  is  kept  up  throughout; 
evidencing  that  one  common  error  of  modern  times  was 
avoided  by  the  early  scribes  or  illuminators : — 


88  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 

These  capitals  were  sometimes  used  alone,  and  some- 
times merely  as  initial  letters,  the  "  minuscules,"  or 
small  letters  accompanying  them  being  Old  English  or 
Black  letters.  The  almost  invariable  practice  seems  to 
have  been  to  paint  the  small  letters  black,  whilst  the 
capitals  were  in  gilt  and  colors,  and  more  or  less  orna- 
mented. Thus,  after  any  of  the  foregoing  capitals  the 
small  letters  would  range  as  in  the  following  line  : — 

'JE[tav    ®air:    ^J^onour    tl)t  ^^^ing. 

which  was  a  common  inscription  on  chancel  screens  and 
arches  about  the  time  of  the  first  and  second  Charles. 
At  a  subsequent  period  the  Black-letter  or  Gothic 
ca[)itals  were  used,  and  the  Anglo-Norman  capitals  were 
not  so  often  mixed  up  with  the  Gothic  minuscules.  The 
Roman  capitals  as  now  commonly  employed,  only  less 
polished  in  shape,  became  great  favorites  after  the  inven- 
tion of  printing,  and  for  a  time  cpiite  superseded  all  the 
other  letters,  both  in  printing  and  writing.  These  were 
very  rudely  constructed  at  first,  the  earliest  printed  books 
in  which  moveable  Roman  types  were  used  having  much 
the  appearance  of  the  first  efforts  of  a  child  at  school. 
What  the  Roman  letters  of  the  painter  may  have  been 
at  this  period  there  is  now  nothing  to  show.   They  were 


ANCIENT  AND  OENAMENTAL  ALPHABETS. 


89 


probably  not  better  than — perhaps  not  so  good  as — those 
of  the  printer.  As  the  Roman  characters,  owing  to  their 
superior  legibility,  became  general  in  all  printed  books, 
so  they  did  in  painted  inscriptions,  and  they  have  up  to 
the  present  time,  and  doubtless  always  will,  be  more 
universally  employed  than  any  others.  From  time  to  time 
since  their  more  general  adoption,  slight  variations  have 
been  made  in  their  forms,  but  these  have  never  been  far 
removed  from  the  strict  Roman  shape.  Amongst  the  most 
commendable  of  these,  the  subjoined — commonly  met 
with  on  monumental  brasses,  and  known  by  the  name 
of  "  Latin," — holds  a  high  place  for  neatness  and  uni- 
formity : — 

ENTERPRISE. 

This  letter,  though  retaining  the  Roman  element  in 
every  particular,  has  an  antique  appearance,  which  ren- 
ders it  highly  effective  for  some  kinds  of  business  pur- 
poses, where  the  more  ancient  style  of  writing  would  be 
unsuitable,  and  where  the  irregular  letter,  which  is  now 
called  the  "old-face,"  would  be  altogether  inappro- 
priate. 

Another  form  of  Roman  letter  is  subjoined.  The 
features  which  distinguished  the  characters  of  the  Mediae- 
val period  are  here  fully  preserved,  whilst  the  lines 
which  form  the  letters  are  admirably  executed,  and  give 
the  whole  an  appearance  of  elegance  and  lightness  which 
is  not  often  met  with.  The  combination  of  large  and 
small  capitals  renders  this  style  of  letter  valueless  for 
many  purposes,  owing  to  the  comparatively  large 
amount  of  space  it  requires  to  render  it  effective,  the  dif- 
ference between  the  height  of  the  small  and  the  large 
capitals  being  for  all  practical  purposes  wasted  : — 
8* 


90  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


ASKET  /VlAKER. 


Amongst  the  most  ornamental  alphabets,  Old  Eng- 
lish and  German  Text  hold  the  first  place,  but  the  forms 
of  these  are  generally  so  well  understood,  and  such  ample 
facilities  exist  for  referring  to  them  in  printed  works, 
that  specimens  of  them  need  not  here  be  given.  Suffice 
it  to  remark  that  Old  English  small  letters  should  be 
placed  as  close  as  possible  together,  and  that  the  down 
strokes  should  be  made  of  one  uniform  thickness.  The 
same  applies  to  German  Text,  which  it  is  customary  to 
adorn  with  flourishes  both  above  and  below  the  Vine  of 
letters.  These  letters  are  frequently  used  with  good 
effect  for  words  of  secondary  import  on  surfaces  where 
several  lines  of  writing  are  introduced.  It  is  not  often 
that  it  is  desirable  to  do  more  than  bring  them  up  with 
a  single  cast  shade,  even  if  a  thickness"  be  added  to 
the  other  letters  on  the  same  surface. 

Another  style  of  alphabet,  somewhat  analogous  to  ttie 
above,  has  been  introduced  under  the  name  of  Tudor- 
esque,  and  for  some  purposes  it  is  most  appropriate.  It 
is  a  handsome  alphabet,  and  while  presenting  the  chief 
characteristics  of  the  Tudoresque  period,  it  is  sufficiently 
readable  for  almost  any  purpose.  As  this  alphabet  is 
not  so  frqeuently  met  with  as  the  two  preceding,  an  en- 
tire set  of  capitals  and  small  letters  is  subjoined,  by  copy- 
ing which  the  young  writer  will  become  fam'liar  with 
the  peculiarities  of  the  different  characters,  and  be  ena- 
bled to  form  them  when  called  upon  to  do  so  without 
reference  to  the  printed  specimens  : — 


ANCIENT  AND  OENAMENTAL  ALPHABETS.  91 


In  regard  to  ornamental  styles  of  lettering  there  is 
ample  scope  for  the  exercise  of  ingenuity.  The  hard  for- 
mal lines  which  compose  the  ordinary  Roman  San-seriff, 
and  Egyptian  alphabets,  are  susceptible  of  great  variation. 
The  writer  may  occasionally  depart  from  the  set  form  of 
these  characters,  and  by  a  species  of  special  license  intro- 
duce lines  which  commend  themselves  by  their  freedom 
and  grace.  When  the  letters  are  of  gold  or  any  light 
color  on  a  dark  ground  this  license  may  be  taken  with 
considerable  advantage ;  but  in  no  case  would  it  be 
wise   to  vary  the  stiff   forms  of  the  letters  by  sub- 


92 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


stituting  a  graceful  flow  of  lines  if  a  "  thickness 
is  to  be  added.  The  erratic  form,  so  to  speak,  is 
sufficiently  obtrusive  of  itself,  especially  when  it  ex- 
tends above  or  below  the  line,  and  any  application  of  a 
colored  "  thickness  "  will  detract  from  the  freedom  wliich 
the  apparently  careless,  but  graceful  lines  are  intend- 
ed to  afford.  We  have  drawn  a  sketchy  outline  of  the 
ornamental  style  here  indicated,  showing  how  the  let- 
ters may  be  advantageously  varied,  and  yet  a  general 
uniformity  preserved  throughout. 


Taking  these  four  letters  as  liis  model,  the  student 
should  make  a  complete  alphabet,  preserving  as  nearly 
as  possible  the  same  features  in  every  letter.  This  is  a 
capital  method  of  practice,  as  it  gives  facility  of  hand  in 
drawing,  and  shows  with  what  a  variety  of  graceful 
forms  the  letters  of  the  ordinary  alphabets  may  be  in- 
vested. 

In  the  foregoing  specimen  the  letters  are  detached, 
but  sometimes  it  may  be  desirable  to  run  them  together 
in  certain  parts,  in  order  to  give  them  an  appearance  of 
carelessness.  This  apparent  carelessness,  however,  needs 
groat  discrimination  in  its  execution,  or,  instead  of  that 
freedom  which  is  indispensable,  it  will  look  awkward 
and  out  of  place.  The  following  specimen  evinces  an 
easy  grace,  the  seeming  carelessness  of  which  is  really  its 
<»:reat  recommendation  ; — 


ANCIENT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS.  93 


These  letters  may  be  made  very  effective  on  a  board 
where  space  is  abundant,  but  they  ought  never  to  be  used 
if  cramped  for  room,  especially  as  regards  their  height. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  letters  in  the  specimen  is  tinted, 
and  if  this  be  successfully  accomplished  by  the  writer  it 
will  add  to  the  effect.  If  the  letters  are  written  in  gold, 
the  tinting  may  be  done  by  a  thin  glaze  of  some  trans- 
parent color,  burnt  sienna  and  Vandyke  brown  being 
most  generally  used  for  this  purpose.  The  markings  of 
the  lines,  which  overlap,  should  be  made  with  Vandyke 
brown.  No  thickness  should  be  put  on,  a  single  cast 
shade  being  all  that  is  required. 

We  subjoin  a  specimen  of  another  style  of  ornamental 
lettering,  in  which,  while  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
freedom,  the  forms  are  all  set  and  regular,  without  that 
flow  of  line  which  characterizes  the  preceding  styles  : — 


This  specimen  is  very  distinct,  and  is  suitable  for 
almost  any  purpose.  Like  the  examples  already  given, 
and  those  which  follow,  the  above  has  been  drawn  and 
engraved  for  this  work,  simply  with  the  view  of  show- 
ing in  what  direction  the  student  may  exercise  his  in- 


94 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


ventive  faculties,  and  as  suggestive  of  the  variety  of 
forms  which  may  be  applied  to  the  letters. 

Some  experienced  sign-writers  delight  in  giving  to 
letters  which  are  distinguished  by  geometric  precision  of 
outline  a  few  graceful  turns,  in  order  to  break  the  hard- 
ness of  the  straight  lines.  This  is  a  good  practice,  if 
intelligently  carried  out.    Here  is  an  example : — 


The  M,  N,  and  E.  in  the  accompanying  specimen  show 
this  departure  from  the  usual  rigidity,  without  the  uni- 
formity of  the  lettering  being  injured  in  the  slightest 
degree.  The  flourishes  which  accompany  the  C,  S,  and 
E  tend  to  break  the  stiffness,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
fill  up  the  bare  spaces,  but  these  should  in  all  cases  be 
used  sparingly,  and  never  brought  up  with  a  thickness 
even  though  a  thickness  be  given  to  the  letters  them- 
sel  ves. 

There  is  something  free  and  pleasing  in  the  style  of 
lettering,  of  which  we  present  an  example  below. 
Worked  in  gold  on  a  black  ground  it  is  singularly  effec- 
tive. The  curved  stems  of  the  letters  require  to  be  very 
uniform,  and  the  letters  must  be  kept  close  together. 
Their  legibility  will  not  be  destroyed  by  this  near  prox- 
imity : — 

SffiOTHER 

Due  regard  must  always  be  had  to  the  readability  of 
the  writing.    The  whole  of  tlie  above  examples  are  uu* 


ANCIENT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS.  95 


objectionable,  in  this  respect,  but  in  order  to  show  how 
easily  the  lettering  may  be  rendered  almost  unreadable 
— at  all  events,  at  the  first  glance — the  following  line 
has  been  cut ; — 


Although  the  letters  are  formed  with  neatness,  and 
every  point  as  regards  careful  construction  has  been 
attended  to,  still  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  letters 
at  a  glance,  and  hence  we  have  an  illustration  of  that 
overelaboration  against  which  the  student  has  already 
been  cautioned.  The  preceding  style  of  lettering,  which 
is  perfectly  readable,  is  but  a  simpler  form  of  this  com- 
plex and  unreadable  style.  The  difference  between  the 
two  consists  in  a  continuation,  conversely,  of  the  down- 
strokes  in  the  latter  case,  forming  diamonds,  the  simi- 
larity of  which  dazzles  the  eye  and  perplexes  the  under- 
standing. 

We  subjoin  one  other  example  of  ornamental  letter- 
ing, selected  from  the  specimens  of  a  celebrated  type- 
founder. The  drawing  and  casting  of  the  letters  are  as 
near  an  approach  to  perfection  as  possible.  In  the 
specimen  book,  the  alphabet  of  which  the  letters  form 
part  is  described  as  "  Mediaeval,'^  and  writing  very  similar 
in  character  was  common  on  the  old  records  engraven  in 
brass  and  stone.  It  has,  however,  a  modern  aspect,  and 
may  appropriately  be  characterised  as  such,  so  that  those 
who  object  to  ancient  styles  simply  because  they  are 
ancient  ma^^  not  be  debarred  from  adopting  letters  which 
have  so  much  symmetry  and  grace  to  recommend  them. 


96  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 

For  writing  in  burnished  gilt  on  glass  this  style  is  very 
suitable,  and  when  a  blended  thickness  be  added,  and  the 
lights  and  shades  are  nicely  blended,  the  elfect  is  incom- 
parably grand.  We  have  selected  the  word  "  History," 
as  containing  sufficient  letters  to  guide  the  young  writer 
in  forming  the  rest  of  the  alphabet  to  correspond  : — 

It  is  not  needful  to  multiply  examples.  Enough  have 
been  given  to  enable  the  diligent  student  to  construct 
others  for  himself.  The  art  is  one  that  is  capable  of  in- 
finite variety,  and  will  well  repay  any  amount  of  atten- 
tion that  can  be  given  to  it.  The  above  suggestive 
styles  may  serve  as  the  starting  point  from  which  the 
student  may  diverge  in  manifold  directions. 


CHAPTER  yi. 


THICKNESSKS  AND  SHADOWS. 

The  letters  in  which  the  modern  sign-writer  delights 
are  those  which  appear  in  relief  and  are  called  "  blocked." 
Common  as  this  style  of  lettering  is  now,  the  date  of  its 
introduction  is  quite  recent.  Whittock,  whose  work  on 
Jjecorative  Painting  was  published  in  1841,  speaks  of 
blocked  lettei'S  as  quite  a  novelty ;  and  he  thus  accounts 
for  their  origin : — The  projecting  letters,  formed  of  wood 
or  metal,  have  of  late  become  so  fashionable,  that  the 
writers  on  shop  fronts,  sign-boards,  etc.,  have  had  re- 
course to  imitating  them,  and  have  produced  letters  in 
such  bold  relief  that  they  look  much  better  than  the 
■raised  letters."  We  have  thus  pretty  clear  testimony 
that  the  imitation  of  raised  letters  was  first  practised  just 
before  the  year  1841;  and  it  would  seem  that  this  imi- 
tation was  introduced  to  supersede  in  effect  the  solid  let- 
ters, which  had  probably  become  far  too  general  in  their 
use  to  please  the  writers  of  that  day.  Whittock  re- 
marks that  the  written  letters,  in  imitation  of  the  raised 
ones,  "  have  a  beautifid  effect  in  gold  on  a  rich  rosewood 
surface.  It  is  difficult  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  mode 
of  producing  them  by  a  written  description,  but  the  fol- 
lowing directions  will  give  the  painter  who  resides  at  a 
distance  from  London  an  idea  of  them.  The  flat  sur- 
face [of  the  letter]  is  gold ;  this  is  supposed  to  be  the 
middle  tint.  The  strong  light,  which  is  made  with  yel- 
low ochre  and  white,  is  seen  on  the  side  of  the  letter, 
9  97 


98 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING, 


tlie  Upper  part  of  which  is  in  warin  shade  as  well  as  the 
under  part.  A  very  strong  shadow  is  seen  under  this, 
upon  the  rosewood,  which  gives  the  warm  shade  all  the 
effect  of  a  reflected  light ;  a  more  faint  shade  is  seen  l)e- 
yond  this.  If  executed  with  skill,  it  is  difficult  to  tell 
whether  the  letters  are  raised  or  not  without  actually 
touching  them.  This  method  is  used  not  only  for 
flat  letters  raised  from  the  ground,  but  also  for  the 
beautiful  foliated  letters  that  are  now  becoming  so 
fashionable." 

In  order  to  imitate  raised  letters, — that  is,  letters  cut 
out  of  wood  or  some  solid  substance,  and  affixed  to  a 
flat  surface, — it  is  necessary  that  the  young  writer  should 
have  some  idea  of  at  least  the  elements  of  linear  per- 
spective. Lettering,  however,  is  not  performed  accord- 
ing to  the  strict  rules  of  perspective,  in  which  all  the 
lines  meet  in  a  point,  but  each  letter  is  formed  as  if  it 
had  an  individual  perspective  of  its  own,  apart  from  its 
connection  with  other  letters. 

To  give  a  simple  illustration,  suppose  we  take  a  rec- 
tangular parallelogram ;  that  is,  an  ol)ject  which  has  its 
opposite  sides  parallel  to  each  other,  and  the  angles  are 
all  right  angles.  Let  it  be  a  block  of  wood,  an  inch 
square,  and  about  six  inches  in  length.  We  will  attach 
one  side  of  this  solid  body  to  an  upright  flat  surface,  and 
let  it  remain  there,  and  then  proceed  to  view  it  in  the 
light  of  perspective.  If  we  stand  immediately  in  front 
Fi '  26  object,  the  eye  being  exactly  level  with 

its  centre,  it  will  be  impossible  to  see  either  of 
n     tlie  two  sides  or  the  top  or  bottom,  and  it  will 
appear,  if  there  be  no  cast  shadow,  nothing 
more  than  a  flat  body,  as  in  Fig.  26.    If  the 
student  now  shifts  his  position,  and  instead  of 
keeping  his  eye  directly  opposite  the  centre  of  the  block 
of  wood,  stands  a  little  on  one  side  and  views  it  from  a 
less  elevated  position,  he  will  then  see,  not  only  the  front 


THICKNESSES  AND  SHADOWS. 


99 


surface  of  the  object,  but  one  of  the  sides  and  the  bot- 
tom ;  thus  if  he  stands  a  little  to  the  right  the  figure  will 
appear  as  in  the  subjoined  example  (Fig.  27). 
Or,  it  may  be  that  he  views  the  object  from  -p'lg.  27. 
above  it,  but  at  the  same  distance  from  the  left, 
in  wliich  case  it  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  28. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that,  according  to  the 
variation  of  the  position  from  which  the  spec- 
tator views  the  object,  it  apparently  changes  its 
form. 

Now,  if  it  be  assumed  that  the  rectangular  parallelo- 
gram represents  the  San-seriff  D,  the  application  of  the 
foregoing  illustration  will  at  once  be  obvious.   The  four 
sides  of  the  block  of  wood  are  thus  disposed  of ; 
that  which  faces  the  board  to  which  it  is  at-  pig.  28. 
tached  is  invisible,  the  right  and  left  sides  and 
the  top  and  bottom  are  wdiat  in  writing  is  [\\ 
designated  the  ^'  thickness," — of  course,  only 
one  side  and  one  end  being  seen  at  a  time, 
— and  the   front  of  the   wood  block  is  the  ^ 
letter  itself 

Individually,  the  letters  should  be  ^'  blocked-up,"  or 
invested  with  thickness,  according  to  the  rules  of  linear 
perspective ;  but,  collectively,  the  principles  of  linear 
perspective  will  not  apply,  because  of  the  disproportion 
in  color  which  would  be  necessitated,  owing  to  the  thick- 
nesses varying  as  the  letters  approach  to  or  recede 
from  the  eye.  In  perspective,  all  lines  meet  in  the  same 
point,  called  the  point  of  sight,  which  is  always  placed 
on  the  horizontal  line  at  an  elevation  corresponding  with 
that  of  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  To  make  this  clear, 
supposing  we  attach  a  number  of  wood  blocks — or,  say, 
raised  letters — to  an  upright  flat  surface,  and  view  them 
from  a  lower  elevation  than  the  letters,  and  from  about 
the  centre,  ihey  would,  according  to  the  rules  of  perspec- 
tive, appear  as  in  Fig.  29. 


100        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


Fig.  29. 


H- 


H 


The  above  illustration  is  a  correct  perspective  repr&v 
sentatioii  of  a  number  of  raised  letters,  viewed  from  tlio 
])oint  A,  on  the  horizontal  line  H.  From  this,  it  will 
be  clearly  seen  that  a  row  of  letters  in  perspective  would 
present  a  variety  of  thicknesses,  which  would  complete- 
ly destroy  the  uniformity  of  any  piece  of  writing.  Conse- 
quently, each  letter  must  have  a  sort  of  perspective  of  its 
own,  so  as  to  secure  regularity  in  the  thickness  of  each 
letter,  as  if  the  work  was  viewed  piecemeal,  or  one  letter 
at  a  time. 

Having  thus  explained  what  is  technically  called 
"the  thickness,''  we  now  proceed  to  show  how  this  dif- 
fers from  the  cast-shade  or  shadow. 

In  the  preceding  remarks,  no  illustration  has  been 
afforded  of  the  manner  in  which  light  of  any  kind  causes 
a  shadow  to  fall  on  a  flat  surface,  through  shining  ob- 
licpiely,  or  in  any  other  way,  upon  the  raised  block  at- 
tached to  it.  If  we  view  the  parallelogram  as  explained 
in  Fig.  26,  and  the  sun  or  some  artificial  light  be  shining 
upon  it  in  an  oblique  direction, — say,  from  behind  the 
shoulder  of  the  spectator, — a  shadow  will  be  j)rojected, 
although  the  thickness  be  invisible  to  the  observer. 


THICKNESSES  AND  SHADOWS. 


101 


This  shadow  will  appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  30.  If  the 
side  and  bottom  of  the  block  be  in  view  of  the  spectator, 
he  will  not  only  see  the  representation  as  in 


Fig.  27  ;  but  there  will  be  a  shadow  on  one 
side  of  the  object,  according  to  the  position  of 
the  light,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31.    All  objects 
from  which  a  shadow  is  cast  must  project  from 
the  surface  on  which  the  shadow  falls.  If 
there  is  no  projection,  there  can,  of  course,  be 
no  shadow ;  and,  as  nearly  every  ])iece  of  writing  now 
exe(;uted  has  at  least  a  cast-shade,  it  is  implied  that 
the  lettering  projects  from  the  surface  on  3^ 
which  it  is  seen.     And  this  shadow — 
which  is  technically  called  a  "  cast-shade'' 
— is  perfectly  correct,  although  the  writ- 
ing may  not  be  "  blocked-up,"  or  invested 
with  a  ^'  thickness.'' 

It  is  the  practice  of  some  writers  to  make  the  shadow 
of  the  letters  of  which  the  sides  are  seen  equal  in  height 
with  the  top  of  the  letters.  This,  however,  is  pi^. 
altogether  wrong,  as  can  be  easily  shown.  Sup- 
posing, for  example,  that  the  parallelogram,  in- 
stead of  being  wood,  were  made  of  glass, — that 
it  is  transparent,  in  fact, — we  shoidd  then  be 
able  to  discern  the  whole  of  the  four  sides  of 
the  object,  as  in  Fig.  32.  Now,  if  the  sun  were  shining 
obliquely  on  this  object  from  the  right, — the  side  Oii 
which  it  is  viewed  by  the  spectator, — the  33 
shadow  at  the  top  would  not  come  from  the 
front  surface  of  the  letter,  but  from  the  back, 
where  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  plane  on 
which  it  is  fixed,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  annexed 
cut  (Fig.  33).  It  will,  therefore,  be  seen  that 
the  shadow  should  not  be  carried  to  the  top  of 
the  front  of  the  letter,  but  that  it  should  fall  diagonally 
from  the  back;  in  which  case  if  the  letter  be  supposed 
to  be  a  solid  object,  it  will  be  seen  at  a  correct  perspec- 
9* 


102         SIGN  WEITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


tive  distance  from  the  top.  The  width  of  the  shadow, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  thickness,  must  be  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  painter. 

It  is  quite  clear  from  the  specimens  of  lettering  occa- 
sionally met  with,  that  some  writers  do  not  understand 
the  simplest  elements  of  perspective,  or  of  light  and 
shade,  as  applied  to  written  characters.  Sometimes  rows 
of  letters  on  a  sign-board  are  shaded  as  if  the  light  came 
from  different  quarters ;  and  thicknesses  are  applied 
sometimes  on  one  side  of  the  letters  and  sometimes  on 
the  other,  as  if  the  spectator  could  be  in  two  })laces  at 
the  same  time.  We  have  even  seen  letters  sunk  in 
plaster,  and  yet  the  painter  has  put  a  cast-shade  on  the 
surface  of  the  plastering  !  Such  instances,  however,  are 
exceptional. 

The  young  writer  would  do  well  to  procure  a  few 
simple  geometrical  solids,  which  are  sold  at  the  artists' 
repositories,  beginning  with  the  rectilinear  figures  and 
then  selecting  the  curvilinear.  He  should  fix  these 
against  a  painted  background,  and  then  place  a  light  in 
such  a  position  that  a  shadow  may  be  projected  on  to  the 
back  ground.  By  carefully  copying  these  figures  and 
the  shadows  projected,  the  student  will  much  sooner 
become  acquainted  with  the  art  of  representing  raised 
letters  than  he  could  do  by  any  amount  of  verbal  teach- 
ing. That  which  he  ascertains  experimentally  will  be 
*  of  far  more  value  to  him  than  any  slavish  following  of 
the  conventional  methods  practised  by  the  mere  mechanic. 
In  the  work  produced  by  one-half  of  the  writers  of  the 
present  day  tliere  is  room  for  improvement  in  this 
respect;  and  the  most  intelligent  and  observant  will 
certainly  gain  many  advantages  over  the  routine  work- 
man, who  learns  just  so  many  combinations  of  light  and 
shade,  and  could  not  for  the  very  life  of  him  get  out  of 
the  beaten  track,  and  produce  an  original  piece  of  work. 
It  is  recorded  as  a  matter  of  history  that  in  some  of  the 
old  monastic  establishments  in  Greece,  art  was  so  per- 


THICKNESSES  AND  SHADOWS. 


verted  that  a  school  of  painting  was  inaugurated,  in 
which  pictures  were  manufactured  according  to  written 
receipts,  for  grouping  and  coloring,  with  uniform  devices 
and  inscriptions.  Let  it  not  be  recorded  of  the  writers 
of  the  nineteenth  century  that  they  worked  in  a  set 
groove  from  which  they  could  not  deviate.  As  a  true 
artist  studies  nature  and  natural  phenomena,  so  a  writer 
should  devote  himself  to  the  study  of  his  art,  ever  seek- 
ing fresh  combinations  and  devices,  but  never  proceed- 
ing against  the  true  principles  of  art  so  far  as  they  can 
be  intelligently  brought  to  bear  upon  his  calling. 

In  the  imitation  of  raised  letters,  the  study  of  the 
writer  should  be  to  deceive  the  eye  of  the  spectator. 
Unless,  indeed,  this  be  his  aim,  the  primary  object  of  the 
elaborately  blended  and  softened  thickness  and  shadow 
is  to  a  certain  extent  lost  sight  of.  The  faculty  of  sight 
is  perhaps  the  most  easily  cheated  of  all  our  senses. 
Theatrical  scenery  and  panoramic  effects  afford  a  good 
illustration  of  this  truth.  And  this  deception  by  a  kind 
of  sleight-of-fiand  adroitness,  which  is  sure  to  please, 
should  be  amongst  the  highest  endeavors  of  the  sign- 
painter.  Whoever  gives  the  best  evidence  of  skill  in 
this  direction  will  occupy  a  higher  position  than  he  who 
is  bound  by  a  timid  adherence  to  conventionalities. 

It  is  not  for  a  moment  to  be  supposed  that  thickness- 
es are  to  be  introduced  solely  for  the  purpose  of  adding 
color  and  giving  variety  to  the  work.  The  object  of 
their  introduction  should  be,  principally,  to  give  to  the 
letters,  by  means  of  chiaro-SGuro,  the  appearance  of  what 
they  are  not  in  reality.  And  this  has  more  or  less  been 
the  end  and  aim,  not  only  of  the  mechanical  painter,  but 
also  of  the  very  foremost  and  most  refined  professional 
artists.  That  those  great  painters  of  antiquity,  the  rec- 
ords of  whose  performances  read  more  like  fables  than 
realities,  made  chiaroscuro  their  chief  study,  is  evident 
from  what  has  been  handed  down  to  us  by  their  histo- 
rians.   We  have  all  read  of  the  productions  of  Apelles, 


104        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


t])e  Prince  of  Painters,  and  of  other  Greek  artists. 
PI  in  J,  who  had  seen  the  picture  of  Alexander  grasping 
a  thunderbolt,  by  Apelles,  relates  that  the  hand  and  the 
missile  were  so  perfect  that  they  had  the  appearance  of 
protruding  from  the  wall.  The  oft-repeated  story  of 
Zc'uxis  and  Parrhasius  may  be  introduced  here,  to  show 
that  the  faithful  imitation  of  natural  objects  was  not  be- 
neath the  notice  of  their  genius.  History  has  recorded 
tliat  tiiese  great  painters  of  antiquity  entered  into  a  con- 
test of  competitive  talent.  The  former  brought  to  the 
trial,  as  a  proof  of  his  skill,  a  bunch  of  grapes  which  he 
had  painted,  and  considered  himself  certain  of  triumph, 
because  his  imitation  was  so  natural  that  birds  had  at- 
tempted to  peck  the  painted  fruit  while  exposed  to  view. 
Parrhasius  presented  a  curtain,  which  he  declared  con- 
cealed the  efforts  of  his  skill,  and  Zeuxis,  trying  to 
withdraw  the  curtain,  found  it  was  only  a  painting, 
whereupon  he  confessed  himself  beaten,  exclaiming,  "  I 
have  deceived  birds,  but  you  have  deceived  man  ! 

This  minute  imitation,  this  realism,  is  universally  ap- 
preciable. It  appeals  alike  to  all  minds.  It  is  clear 
that  the  Greek  artists  Parrhasius,  Zeuxis,  Protogenes, 
and  Apelles  considered  the  perfect  imitation  of  nature 
and  of  natural  objects  as  the  very  essence  of  their  art. 
And  although,  in  the  history  of  painting,  artists  and 
schools  have  arisen  who  have  disregarded  this  essential, 
yet  that  is  no  argument  against  the  productions  of  those 
who,  while  they  have  not  neglected  the  principles  on 
which  the  higher  arts  are  based,  have  yet  regarded  exe- 
cutive or  imitative  art  as  the  great  desideratum  by  which 
to  attain  perfection. 

^yhat  is  true  of  the  higher  arts  in  this  particular,  is 
equally  true  of  the  most  unpretentious  of  the  industrial 
arts.  If  Zeuxis  could  paint  so  as  to  deceive  birds,  and 
Parrhasius  so  as  to  deceive  man,  there  is  no  reason  why 
any  one  who  pays  proper  attention  to  the  representation 
of  natural  objects  should  not  be  able  to  give  some  ap- 


THICKNESSES  AND  SHADOWS. 


105 


pearance  of  solidity  and  relief  to  what  is  in  reality  per- 
fectly flat.  The  Painted  Hall  at  Greenwich,  by  Sir  J. 
Thornhill,  is  a  good  instance  of  relievo  decoration  ;  the 
walls,  which  are  flat,  being  painted  in  imitation  of  fluted 
columns  with  ornamental  mouldings  and  cornices.  The 
sides  of  the  upper  part  of  the  hall  are  painted  in  imita- 
tion of  bas-reliefs,  and  the  eflect  is  very  pleasing.  An- 
other good  example  may  be  found  at  Hampton  Court 
Palace,  where  the  decorations  by  \'errio,  which  are  in 
relief,  are  most  tasteful,  and  the  eye  finds  a  difliculty  in 
detecting  at  first  sight  where  the  work  of  the  painter 
ends  and  that  of  the  modeller  begins. 

These  splendid  examples  of  light  and  shade  should 
stimulate  the  young  painter  to  persevere  in  his  eflbrts, 
until  he  is  able  to  produce  on  a  flat  surface  letters  which 
appear  to  project  or  to  recede,  as  the  case  may  be,  so  as 
to  deceive — if  not  the  expert  in  such  matters — at  least 
those  whose  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  limited.  If  a 
raised  or  a  sunk  letter  be  represented  in  such  a  way  that 
it  deceives  the  eye,  the  painter  naturally  takes  a  higher 
position  than  he  would  do  if  he  executed  his  work  sim- 
ply mechanically,  making  it  apparent  that  the  raising  or 
sinking  is  a  mere  clumsy  imitation  and  not  the  reality. 
Any  tyro  can  paint  in  this  slovenly  manner,  but  it  re- 
quires much  study  and  perseverance  to  effect  the  higher 
object  to  be  aimed  at. 

In  order  to  attain  to  the  perfection  we  would  incul- 
cate, the  student,  having  practised  with  the  geometrical 
solids,  is  recommended  to  procure  a  few  well-formed  let- 
ters cu<-  out  of  wood,  and  to  place  them  in  the  sunlight 
against  a  suitable  background,  copying  the  lights  and 
shades,  together  with  the  reflected  lights  which  are  seen 
upon  the  sides  of  the  letters,  and  noting  any  peculiarity 
that  may  present  itself  By  so  doing,  he  will  get  a 
clearer  insight  into  the  matter  than  he  would  do  by  fol- 
lowing the  set  rules  of  the  best  of  masters. 

Having  thus  enforced  the  necessity  of  observation  and 


106        SIGN  WETTING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


study,  it  becomes  ns  to  point  out  a  few  of  the  peculiari- 
ties whicli  are  presented  to  the  eye  of  tlie  observant  in- 
quirer. In  the  foregoing  remarks,  alhision  has  been 
made  to  light  and  shade,  but  there  was  no  reference  to 
the  gradations  of  tint,  which  the  student  will  not,  per- 
haps, at  first  discover,  but  which,  nevertheless,  play  an 
important  part  in  all  imitative  execution,  and  are  always 
seized  upon  by  the  practised  master.  No  one  can  fail 
to  have  noticed  the  softened  or  blended  thicknesses  which 
appear  on  the  best  letters  of  the  foremost  writers  of  the 
present  day.  The  blended  or  graduated  thicknesses  are 
not,  or,  at  least,  ought  not  to  be — the  result  of  a  mere 
whim  ;  but  they  are  introduced  in  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  optics.  If  we  have  to  imitate  on  a  flat  surface 
a  letter  cut  out  of  a  solid  block  of  wood,  the  sides  and 
front  of  which  are  colored  in  one  uniform  tint,  it  is  per- 
fectly obvious  that  it  could  not  be  represented  satisfac- 
torily by  using  the  same  unform  tint  on  the  flat  surface 
for  both  the  front  and  the  thickness,  because  this  would 
only  tend  to  confuse.  There  must  be  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  front  of  the  letter  and  the  thickness ;  and  this 
distinction  is  really  in  strict  consonance  with  nature. 
Light  and  shade  intervene  to  develop  the  form  of  the 
ohject,  and  to  give  variety  to  the  tint.  Without  these 
all  objects  would  appear  flat.  Supposing  the  light  to 
fall  directly  on  the  front  of  the  letter,  that  will  be  the 
iiighest  light,  and  it  will  appear  lighter  than  it  is  in 
reality.  Hence  we  get  a  difference  of  tone  for  the  front 
and  side.  But  then  there  is  the  bottom  of  the  letter, 
which  we  will  suppose  to  be  visible  to  the  spectator. 
This  cannot,  of  course,  have  so  much  light  even  as  the 
side,  the  shadow  being  projected  across  it,  and  hence  it 
will  appear  much  darker  in  tone. 

But  then,  in  addition  to  these  three  degrees  of  light 
and  shade,  there  are  the  reflections,  the  rays  emitted  from 
surrounding  objects,  and  the  shadow  to  be  borne  in  mind 
and  represented. 


THICKNESSES  AND  SHADOWS. 


107 


In  order  to  simplify  the  matter,  and  as  it  is  not  our 
province  at  present  to  deal  with  color,  let  it  be  assumed 
tliat  the  solid  letter  which  we  are  copying  is  painted  a 
j)ure  white.  In  this  case,  the  light  falling  on  the  front, 
the  letter  will  appear  a  perfect  white,  the  thickness  at 
the  side  will  be  a  shade  removed  from  white,  whilst  the 
underneath  thickness  will  be  in  half  tint.  In  ordinary 
])lain  work  these  three  varieties  of  tone  would  embrace 
all  that  the  writer  would  care  to  introduce.  And  though 
to  some  extent  they  would  have  the  desired  effect — that 
of  throwing  the  letter  out  in  relief — still  there  would  be 
something  wanting  to  complete  the  illusion. 

In  the  representation  of  solid  bodies,  there  are  two 
cardinal  principles  which  can  never  be  disregarded : — 

I.  The  brightest  light  gradually  loses  its  force  as  it 
recedes  from  the  eye,  and  at  the  remotest  distance  be- 
comes a  slight  shade. 

II.  The  darkest  shadow  gradually  loses  its  intensity 
as  it  recedes  from  the  eye,  until  it  becomes  altogether 
indistinguishable. 

Thus,  light  and  shadow  are  affected  by  distance  in 
an  opposite  manner — the  light  becoming  darker,  and 
the  shadow  lighter,  whereby  each  assimilates  to  the 
other. 

It  therefore  follows,  as  a  natural  consequence,  that  the 
front  of  the  object,  on  which  the  light  falls,  will  not 
present  any  gradations,  but  will  be  of  uniform  bright- 
ness throughout.  The  side,  however  will  not  be  uni- 
form in  tone  ;  but  will  be  darkest  where  it  meets  tlie 
light,  becoming  gradually  fainter  towards  the  back- 
ground. This  is  the  effect  of  contrast.  It  is  always 
necessary  to  give  force  to  the  highest  light  by  encom- 
passing it  with  darker  tones,  which  have  no  existence  in 
fact,  but  which  must  not  be  omitted  in  any  realistic  rep- 
resentation. 

First, — the  light  from  that  part  of  a  surface  nearest  ix> 
the  eye  has  greater  force  than  that  from  the  further  end 


108 


SIGN  WHITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


of  the  same  surface.  This  effect  is  varied,  however,  ac- 
cording to  the  obliquity  of  the  surface,  the  situation  of 
the  illuminating  power,  the  reflections,  and  so  forth.  In 
looking  along  a  flat  white  surface — say,  a  sheet  of  card- 
board— on  which  the  light  falls  evenly,  the  nearest  edge 
will  appear  the  brightest;  at  a  small  distance  this  bright- 
ness becomes  modified;  a  little  further  off  its  intensity  is 
yet  m()re  decreased ;  and,  as  the  eye  advances  towards 
the  other  extremity,  the  light  has  altogether  disappeared 
and  a  slight  shade  is  apparent.  Or,  let  us  suppose  that 
a  long  row  of  buildings  has  to  be  represented.  Now, 
from  the  immense  distance  of  the  natural  luminary — • 
the  sun — the  rays  it  emits  are  assumed  to  be  parallel,  and 
not  divergent,  and  they  will  therefore,  fall  with  equal 
force  along  the  entire  range  of  buildings.  Consequently, 
it  may  appear  to  the  uninitiated  that  the  light  ought  to  be 
equally  distributed  in  the  representation.  But  here  the 
principle  of  aerial  perspective  steps  in  ;  and,  as  in  the 
previous  illustration,  the  high  light  nearest  the  spectator 
becomes  modified  as  it  recedes,  until  at  the  furthest  ex- 
tremity of  the  buildings  it  is  almost  lost  in  shade.  The 
surface  being  uniform,  this  effect  is  very  gradual,  regu- 
lar, and  constant.  The  gradation  of  light  and  shade 
may  be  still  more  forcibly  illustrated,  if,  instead  of  a 
flat  superficies,  we  select  a  circular  metallic  object.  Here 
the  gradation  from  the  highest  light  to  the  strongest 
shade  is  very  rapid,  and  easily  distinguishable  by  the 
most  unobservant.  The  distance  between  the  highest 
light  and  the  intensest  shade  being  bounded  by  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  object,  the  contrast  is  necessarily  very 
vivid. 

Secondly, — the  nearest  end  of  any  object  that  is  in 
shadow  seems  more  deeply  shaded  than  the  remotest 
end.  If,  for  instance,  the  rays  of  light,  instead  of  strik- 
ing against  the  front  of  a  range  of  buildings,  are  behind 
it,  a  shadow  will  be  cast  on  to  the  road  or  pavement,  and 
this  shadow  will  be  most  intense  the  nearer  it  is  to  the 


THICKNESSES  AND  SHADOWS. 


109 


eye,  becoming  weakened,  or,  as  it  were,  diluted  by  de- 
grees, as  it  recedes,  until  it  is  lost  in  the  distance.  The 
effect  of  the  atmosphere,  whilst  it  moderates  and  dimin- 
ishes the  resplendence  of  light,  has  a  greater  effect  on  the 
obscurity  of  shadow.  Light,  therefore,  is  distinguisha- 
ble at  a  much  farther  distance  than  shadow,  the  air  tell- 
ing with  greater  force  upon  the  one  than  the  other. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  for  our  purpose  to  carry  this 
theme  further;  but  simply  to  give  a  single  diagram  illus- 
trative of  the  subject,  and  then  to  apply  it  practically  to 
the  shading  of  geometric  solids  in  the  form  of  letters,  show- 
ing how  they  are  made  to  ap})ear  to  advance  or  recede. 

For  simplicity  of  illustration,  instead  of  selecting  a 
range  of  buildings,  suppose  we  take  a  number  of  cubes, 
and  place  them  on  a  plane  superficies,  such  as  the  top  of 
a  table,  as  shown  on  the  next  page.  The  rays  of  light 
are  supposed  to  strike  the  top  of  the  table  uniformly,  to 
be  equally  distributed  all  over  its  surface,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  fall  on  the  cubes  from  one  side,  so  that 
their  tops  and  one  side  are  in  high  light,  whilst  the 
other  portions  are  darkened.  The  object  of  this  diagram 
(Fig.  34)  is  to  show  how  both  the  light  and  the  shade 
lose  their  intensity  as  they  recede  from  the  eye. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  light  parts  of  the  most 
distant  cubes  become  darkened,  and  the  dark  parts  light- 
*ined,  in  accordance  with  the  well-known  laws  of  optics 
which  we  have  pointed  out,  till  in  the  two  most  distant 
cubes  they  are  almost  similar  in  tint. 

The  practical  application  of  this  diagram  to  the  imi- 
tation of  letters  in  relief  will  be  apparent,  if  a  number  of 
solid  letters  be  substituted  for  the  cubes.  Although  the 
above  figure  applies  rather  to  writing  placed  in  perspec- 
tive than  to  surface  representations,  the  same  principle 
holds  good  in  both  instances,  only  in  a  less  marked  de- 
gree in  the  latter  case. 

In  order  not  to  be  misunderstood,  it  will  be  necessary 
:o  show  the  practical  application  of  the  laws  of  optics 


110        SIGN  WRITING  AND.  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


Fig.  34. 


oxemplified  in  the  cubes  to  the  subject  matter  herein 
treated,  by  the  aid  of  another  diagram.  Let  us  take  two 
letters,  which  will  be  sufficient  for  our  purpose — one  with 
straight,  and  the  other  curved  lines,  in  order  tlie  more 
clearly  to  show  the  gradations  of  light  and  shade,  as  well 
as  the  shadow,  which  will  be  preseuted,  and  let  us  sup- 
pose the  front  of  them  to  be  painted  white,  and  the  sides 
red,  and  let  them  be  affixed  to  a  tinted  board,  as  shown 
on  page  111. 

Now,  here  we  have  a  representation  of  two  letters  cut 
out  of  a  solid  substance,  the  gradations  of  tint  and  the 
shadow  being  distinctly  marked.  The  light,  it  will  be 
noticed,  comes  from  behind  the  spectator,  striking  tha 
letters  obliquely  on  the  right-hand  side.  The  front  of 
the  letters  is  in  high  light.  The  thickness  being  paint- 
ed red,  it  is  assumed  that  it  is  deeper  in  tint  than  the 
ground  color,  even  at  the  sides  where  the  light  falls.  Of 
course,  then,  the  under  portion  of  the  thickness  must  be 


much  darker,  as  it  is  not  only  not  illuminated,  but  has  a 
shadow  thrown  across  it.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  un- 
der thickness  is  even  deeper  in  shade  than  the  shadow. 
This  would  not  be  the  case  if  the  thickness  of  the  blocks 
were  painted  white,  the  same  as  their  front  surface  ;  but, 
being  red,  the  shade  is  strengthened  accordingly.  When 
the  thickness  of  block  letters  is  painted  a  lighter  color 
than  the  ground,  the  under  portion  of  the  blocks  being 
in  shade,  will  aj)pear  lighter  than  the  shadow  VAdiich 
falls  on  the  ground. 

The  sides  of  the  letters  on  which  the  light  falls  are 
not  quite  uniform  in  tint.  These  are  marked  by  grada- 
tions, which  must  be  carefully  watched  and  represented. 
Jn  rectilinear  objects,  the  side  next  the  highest  light  is 
slightly  toned  as  the  effect  of  contrast,  although  in  reali- 
ty such  tone  does  not  exist,  and  is  contrary  to  the  law 
])ointed  out  in  regard  to  the  cubes.  Objects  should  be 
represented  not  as  they  really  are,  but  as  they  present 
themselves  to  the  eye. 

Letters  which  have  a  light  thickness  on  a  dark 
ground  are  generally  invested  with  two  cast-shades — one 
black  and  the  other  a  shade  darker  than  the  grountL 


112         SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


The  thickness  on  the  shadow  side  of  the  letters  is  ont  of 
sight,  but  the  shadow  itself  is  projected"  on  to  the  back- 
gmuiid,  and  it  will  be  found  in  nature  that  the  darkest 
part  of  the  shadow  impinges  upon  the  highest  light. 
The  angle  at  which  the  shadow  is  projected  depends,  of 
course,  U{)on  the  position  of  the  illuminating  power ;  and 
if  it  be  the  sun,  the  declination  of  the  shadow  must  be 
parallel  throughout,  and  not  in  perspective,  as  it  would 
be  if  some  artificial  light  were  the  illuminating  medium. 
It  only  remains  to  be  remarked  further,  that  the  shadow 
thrown  by  a  white  object  is  darker  than  the  shadow 
side  of  that  object.  Thus,  the  under  part  of  a  light 
thickness  ought  never  to  be  so  dark  in  tone  aa  the  shadow 
on  the  surface  upon  which  the  letters  are  fixed. 

From  the  foregoing  observations,  it  is  evident  that 
there  is  ample  scope  in  this  particular  branch  of  the  art 
for  the  exercise  of  much  intelligence  and  ingenuity  on 
the  part  of  the  diligent  student. 

In  contrast  to  raised  letters,  there  are  those  that  are 
"sunk,'^  or  cut  into  any  solid  substance,  and  these  are 
of  two  kinds — the  square  and  the  prismatic.  The  for- 
mer are  usually  cut  in  compo  or  plaster  whilst  it  is  new 
and  still  wet,  and  the  latter  are  generally  chiselled  on 
memorial  or  headstones.  Both  of  these  kinds  of  sunk 
letters  are  imitated  by  sign-writers,  and  sometimes  with 
so  much  skill  that  the  spectator  is  left  in  ignorance  of 
the  deception  to  which  he  is  subjected. 

The  learner  ixS  recommended  to  begin  by  copying, 
not  the  imitations  of  others,  but  the  actual  sunk  letters 
themselves.  This  is  the  only  method  of  procedure  cal- 
culated to  lead  to  successful  imitation.  The  lights, 
shadows,  and  reflections  should  be  carefully  watched 
and  noted,  so  that  they  may  be  properly  applied  in 
practice. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  imitation  of  square  suidc 
letters  is  less  difficult  than  that  of  the  prismatic,  in  which 
failure  is  most  often  apparent;  in  fact,  very  few  writers 


THICKNESSES  AND  SHADOWS. 


113 


hecome  thoroughly  efficient  in  this  particular.  It  is  no 
uncommon  thing  for  writing  of  this  sort  to  have  an  ef- 
fect the  very  reverse  of  what  was  intended  ;  for,  instead 
of  its  appearing  to  sink  or  retire  from  the  surface,  it 
actually  seems  to  advance.  Work  of  this  kind,  which 
is  too  frequently  the  result  of  reproducing  mere  imita- 
tion, cannot,  of  course,  be  regarded  as  satisfactory.  A 
few  studies  from  a  model,  if  they  be  watchfully  and  in- 
telligently persevered  in,  will  be  worth  any  amount  of 
mere  reproductive  imitation. 

In  the  square  sunk  letters  there  is  the  depth,  as  con- 
tra-distinguished from  the  "  thickness'^  of  raised  letters, 
to  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  also  the  reflections  and 
shadow.  If  the  spectator  station  himself  below  the  line 
of  lettering,  and  view  it  in  an  oblique  direction,  he  will, 
of  course,  see  one  side  and  the  underneath  part  of  the 
reveal.  In  a  representation,  the  rays  of  the  sun  are 
generally  made  to  fall  on  the  side  visible  to  the  specta- 
tor, and  tliis  is  perhaps  the  wisest  arrangement.  This 
side,  then,  will  be  in  high  light,  and  the  underneath  por- 
tions will  be  in  shade.  We  thus  get  what  corres- 
ponds to  the  light  and  dark  thickness  in  a  raised  block. 
But  in  this  case,  the  shadow,  which  is  caused  by  the 
sun's  rays,  will  be  exhibited  on  the  body  of  the  letters 
themselves,  and  not  on  the  surface  on  which  they  are 
formed.  A  sunk  letter  cannot  project  a  shadow  beyond 
its  own  boundary.  This  shadow,  then,  will  be  on  the 
opposite  side,  though  on  the  face  of  the  letter  itself,  to 
that  on  Avhich  the  depth  of  the  sinking  is  represented. 
If  this  plan  has  been  followed,  the  result  will  be  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  subjoined  letters  (Fig.  36) : 
Fig.  36. 


10* 


114        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


The  other  kind  of  sunk  letters  is  formed  on  a  some- 
what similar  principle  as  regards  light  and  shade,  but 
the  shadow,  if  any,  is  less  defined.  A  light  side  and  a 
dark  side  are  generally  adopted  for  the  vertical  strolvcs 
in  representing  these  letters,  the  horizontal  lines  being 
marked  by  a  stronger  contrast  between  the  light  and 
shade.  The  letters  following  (Fig.  37),  which  are  pur- 
posely made  to  the  same  outlines  as  the  foregoing  (Fig. 
36),  will  show  the  ordinary  method  of  representation. 

Fig.  37. 


These  are  sufficient  to  sliow  the  general  principle  upon 
which  sunk  letters  should  be  imitated,  and  it  will  reatl- 
ily  be  seen  what  an  extensive  field  is  here  opened  up  to 
the  beginner. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  enlarge  upon  this  subject.  A 
few  attempts,  based  on  the  foregoing  illustrations,  will 
convince  the  student  that  his  only  chance  of  success  is 
in  proportion  to  his  diligence  and  aj^plication.  The 
hints  herein  afforded  are  necessarily  brief,  but  to  any 
one  of  ordinary  intelligence  tliey  will  be  found  sufficient 
to  pave  the  way  to  great  achievements  iu  the  direction 
indicated. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


LETTERS  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 

In  these  days  of  puffery,  when  each  advertising 
tradesman  is  endeavoring  to  secure  a  monopoly  of  at- 
traction to  his  announcements,  the  ingenuity  of  the  sign- 
writer  is  taxed  to  the  utmost  extent.  There  is  a  per- 
petual demand  upon  him  for  some  "  new  thing  f  and 
the  direction  in  which,  as  it  seems  to  us,  there  is  still 
much  scope  for  the  writer  to  exercise  his  ingenuity  is 
that  of  lettering  in  perspective,  which,  if  carried  out 
with  judgment  and  ability,  may  be  rendered  highly  at- 
tractive. 

For  the  proper  performance  of  this  kind  of  work, 
which  has  already  been  successfully  adopted  in  a  few 
instances,  it  is  essential  that  the  waiter  should  have  a 
fair  know^ledge  of  the  rules  of  perspective  both  linear 
and  aerial.  After  some  amount  of  practice  the  student 
will  be  enabled  to  put  letters  in  perspective  without  any 
complicated  geometrical  lines ;  but  at  the  same  time  it 
will  be  found  much  more  satisfactory  if  he  understands 
thoroughly  the  elements  of  perspecti  ve,  so  that  if  the  eye 
detect  any  apparent  deviations  in  the  work,  the  writer 
may  be  enabled  to  apply  to  it  an  unerring  test  by  which 
:t  may  be  proved,  and,  if  found  wrong,  corrected.  The 
more  experienced  writers  form  their  perspective  letters 
without  any  but  the  simplest  lines,  and  generally  they 
^re  pretty  successful.  Of  course,  in  practice,  it  is  not 
always  convenient  to  make  use  of  any  great  number  of 
115 


116        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


linos,  as  they  would  often  extend  far  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  board  or  surface  to  be  written  upon ;  and  then, 
again,  there  may  be,  as  is  often  the  case,  structural  ob- 
stacles to  prevent  their  being  used.  This,  however, 
must  never  be  made  an  excuse  for  any  failure  that  may 
be  exhibited,  inasmuch  as  the  perspective  writing  may, 
in  the  first  instance,  be  set  out  on  a  sheet  of  paper  in 
accordance  with  correct  principles,  and  when  the  pro- 
portions of  the  several  letters  have  been  found,  they  may 
readily  be  transferred  to  any  larger  scale  by  the  aid  of  a 
rule-scale,  a  pair  of  compasses,  or  by  a  simple  geometric 
problem. 

Before  proceedin;^  further  on  this  particular  head,  it 
may  not  be  inopporcune  to  digress  a  little,  and  explain 
the  geometrical  problem  referred  to,  as  its  application 
may,  in  certain  cases,  be  very  advantageous,  and  save  a 
considerable  amount  of  trouble  and  vexation.  When  a 
piece  of  writing  has  been  set  out  to  one  scale,  and  it  is 
required  to  be  expanded  or  contracted,  it  may  be  done 
with  mathematical  precision,  in  regard  to  each  indivi- 
dual letter,  by  the  aid  of  simple  geometry.  Take  a  short 
line  of  writing,  which  will  suffice  for  mere  illustration — 
any  word  containing  letters  of  various  widths — and 
suppose  that  it  has  been  set  out  according  to  one  scale, 
and  that  it  is  important  it  should  be  enlarged,  and  that 
such  enlargement  is  required  to  be  made  duly  propor- 
tionate in  the  width  of  the  various  letters.  Now,  in 
order  to  do  this,  it  would  be  a  tedious  process  to  meas- 
ure the  letters  one  by  one,  and  assign  to  each  its  exact 
proportional  expansion ;  and  if  the  line  of  letters  hap- 
pened to  be  very  long,  this  would  be  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult, and  more  especially  so  if  the  scale  of  enlargement 
involved  an  irregular  or  fractional  measurement.  The 
easiest  mode  of  procedure,  therefore,  is  to  adopt  a  sim})le 
geometric  problem,  which  is  frequently  used  by  ai-chi- 
tectural  and  mechanical  draughtsmen,  and  which  will 
S(irve  equally  well  for  the  purpose  in  question.  Sup- 


LETTERS  IN  PEESPECTIVE. 


IIT 


posing  that  a  number  of  letters  have  been  set  out  in  the 
ordinary  way,  and  that  it  is  desired  to  expand  them  so 
as  to  make  them  fill  a  longer  line,  and  that  it  is  impor- 
tant that  this  expansion  should  be  exactly  proportionate 
in  every  way,  it  will  be  necessary  to  proceed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  subjoined  diagram.  Let  it  be  imagined 
that  the  word  writer  has  to  be  expanded,  that  it  is, 
say,  two  feet  in  length,  and  that  it  has  to  be  spread  out 
to  two  feet  and  three-quarters,  without  increasing  the 
height  of  the  letters.  The  diagram  (Fig.  38)  is  on  a 
scale  of  one  inch  to  the  foot.  The  first  thing  is  to  draw 
the  line  of  expansion  at  any  distance  below  the  writing 
to  be  extended,  and  then  draw  a  diagonal  line  from  A  to 
the  point  b.  Parallel  lines  must  now  be  drawn  from  the 
top  row  of  letters  to  the  diagonal  line,  and  from  there 
vertical  lines  extending  to  the  line  of  expansion  B,  when 
the  proportional  expansion  will  be  the  result  thus : 


Fig.  38. 


The  same  problem  may  be  used  with  equal  facility  for 
the  compression  of  the  letters,  the  only  difference  being 
in  shortening  the  diagonal  line.  This  line,  as  has  been 
already  intimated,  may  form  any  angle  with  the  line  of 
writing,  and  the  result  will  be  the  same.  Of  course,  in 
practice,  the  dimensions  of  the  writing  will  generally  be 


118        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


sue! I  that  a  large  space  will  be  required  for  setting  out 
any  expansion  or  contraction,  according  to  the  foregoing 
diagram  ;  and,  accordingly,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
worksliops  of  most  writers  have  at  least  one  side  plas- 
tered and  painted  or  distempered,  so  that,  when  neces- 
sary, the  writing  may  be  lightly  sketched  upon  it,  pre- 
viously to  its  being  set  out  upon  the  work.  Beginners 
will  find  it  of  the  utmost  importance  to  provide  them- 
selves with  a  good  wall-space,  upon  which  they  can 
practice  at  their  leisure;  and  in  certain  cases,  when  very 
particular  work  has  to  be  executed,  it  is  advisable  to  at- 
tach a  piece  of  white  paper  to  the  wall,  to  set  out  the 
lettering  upon  it,  and  then  to  transfer  it  to  the  surface  to 
be  written.  In  this  way  a  clearly-defined  outline  will 
be  secured,  and  the  danger  of  scratching  the  newly- 
painted  ground  with  the  pipe-clay  will  be  avoided. 
White  paper  suitable  for  this  purpose  is  now  made  of 
various  widths,  the  widest  being  six  feet,  and  can  be  pro- 
cured at  most  artists'  color  shops  in  rolls  of  twelve  yards 
long,  or  cut  off  at  so  much  per  yard  run.  It  is  very 
cheap.  Or,  the  common  white  lining  paper  used  by 
paper-hangers,  which  is  still  cheaper,  will  serve  for  most 
ordinary  purposes,  but  it  has  not  the  substance  of  the 
cartridge  paper  just  referred  to. 

It  may  be  added  further,  in  regard  to  the  above  sub- 
ject, that,  if  a  number  of  boards  have  to  be  written  ex- 
actly alike,  as  is  often  the  case  for  advertising  purposes, 
the  plan  of  setting  out  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  then 
transferring  to  the  boards  by  means  of  a  pounce,  is  most 
advanttigeous,  the  saving  of  time  being  very  considera- 
ble. Besides  this,  uniformity  is  secured — and  that  with- 
out any  difficulty. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  correct  proportional  ex- 
pansion or  contraction,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  same 
principle  may  be  applied  to  a  variety  of  purposes,  which, 
however,  it  is  not  necessary  to  point  out,  as  the  foregoing 
illu.  trations  are  of  themselves  sufficiently  demonstrative. 


LETTERS  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


119 


We  now  return  to  the  more  abstruse  subject  of  perspec- 
tive writing.  And  first  it  must  be  distinctly  understood 
that  there  tan  only  be  one  horizontal  line  and  one  point 
of  sight  in  a  single  representation,  just  the  same  as  in  a 
picture.  This  is  a  matter  which  requires  to  be  enforced 
with  some  persistency,  as  it  is  often  lost  sight  of  or  neg- 
lected by  writers  of  even  good  repute,  who  sometimes  on 
one  surface  have  as  many  as  three  or  four  points  of 
sight — one,  in  fact,  for  each  line  of  letters.  Of  course, 
this  is  utt;  rly  absurd,  and  defeats  the  object  intended. 
A  spectator  cannot  be  in  several  places  at  one  and  the 
same  time,  and  hence  there  cannot  be  several  horizontal 
lines  or  several  points  of  sight  on  one  surface.  It 
must,  therefore,  be  understood,  once  for  all,  that  if  writ- 
ing be  made  in  perspective,  all  the  lines  of  letters  must 
tend  towards  one  point  on  the  horizontal  line,  which  line 
is  always  supposed  to  be  on  a  level  with  the  eye  of  the 
spectator.  To  this  line  all  the  rows  of  letters  in  per- 
spective must  incline,  and  here,  if  they  are  of  sufficient 
length,  they  should  meet. 

As  an  example,  let  us  proceed  to  put  in  perspective 
the  word  theatre,  in  San-seriff  characters,  on  a  rec- 
tangular-shaped board.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
determine  where  the  horizontal  line  will  fall,  and,  for 
the  sake  of  convenience,  let  that  be  drawn  across  the 
middle  of  the  board,  as  H  in  the  annexed  Fig.  39.  Let 
A  B  c  D  be  the  plan  of  the  board,  and  the  lineH  through 
the  centre  the  horizontal  line.  The  next  thing  is  to  de- 
cide upon  the  vanishing  point,  and,  for  the  sake  of  sim- 
plicity, let  this  be  fixed  near  the  extreme  right  of  the 
board,  as  at  E.  Now,  the  height  of  the  writing  being 
marked  off  on  the  left  side,  which  is  supposed  to  be  near- 
est the  eye,  lines  giving  the  perspective  inclination  of 
the  writing  must  be  drawn  to  the  vanishing  point  E,  and 
the  letters  must  be  formed  within  them,  as  shown 
on  next  page. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  letters  diminish  as  they  recede, 


120  SIGN  WKITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


not  only  in  height,  but  in  width,  and  that  if  they  ex- 
tended to  the  vanishing  point  they  would  be  indistinguisli- 
able,  owing  to  their  presumed  extreme  distance  from  the 
spectator. 

But  now,  if  we  shift  our  position,  so  that  the  vanish- 
ing point,  instead  of  being  near  the  side  of  the  board, 
falls  in  the  middle  of  the  horizontal  line,  the  result  will 
he  that  the  letters  will  diminish  as  they  recede  much 
more  rapidly,  and  it  will  be  correct  to  have  some  per- 
spective writing  in  another  line  on  the  other  side,  and 
if  any  other  linos  of  letters  are  added  they  must  go  off 
towarils  and  meet  in  the  same  vanishing  point.  An  in- 
stance of  this  is  given  in  Fig.  41,  page  122,  where  each 


Fig.  39. 


side  of  the  building  supports  a  line  of  letters,  which  are 
attached  as  raised  blocks  to  the  walls.  Another  row  of 
letters  stands  on  the  floor,  and,  b^i ng  in  front  of  the 
spectator,  does  not  vanish,  but  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
thickness  of  the  letters  is  in  perspective  and  tends 
toward  the  vanishing  point. 

The  horizontal  line  in  the  foregoing  and  following  ex- 
amples has  been  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  rectangle, 
and  as  a  general  rule  this  is  the  most  effective  for  a  sign- 
board, but  it  is  by  no  means  imperative.  It  may  be 
nearpr  the  top  or  bottom,  and  still  the  perspective  will 
be  accurate,  so  lono:  as  all  the  vanishinii;  lines  meet  in 
the  one  point. 


LETTERS  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


121 


To  ascertain  the  correct  perspective  of  raised  letters,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  have  a  point  of  distance  on  the  hori- 
zontal line,  as  A  (Fig.  40),  in  addition  to  the  vanishing 
point  B,  in  which  all  the  lines  of  the  thickness  must 
meet,  as  shown  in  the  following  diagram,  which  gives 
the  perspective  of  the  thickness  ; — 

Fig.  40. 


We  have  sometimes  seen  writing  in  perspective  that 
appeared  very  effective  a  short  distance  off,  but  when 
looked  into,  has  been  found  to  be  altogether  wrong  in 
principle.  The  perspective  declination  of  the  letters 
themselves  has  been  correct  enough,  but  the  thickness 
has  been  added  without  any  reference  to  the  perspective 
of  the  writing,  just  as  if  the  letters  were  placed  within 
parallel  lines.  Of  course,  if  the  rules  of  perspective  be 
applied  to  the  letters  at  all,  they  should  be  applied  as 
well  to  the  thickness,  and  unless  this  is  done  the  result 
cannot  be  correct.  It  is  a  pity  that  writers  do  not  tal<e 
more  pains  to  master  the  art  of  perspective,  instead  of 
being  content  with  a  very  partial  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

The  thickness  and  shadow  must  be  treated  according 
to  the  rules  of  perspective.  The  next  example  (Fig. 
41)  gives  a  perspective  representation,  not  merely  as  re- 
gards outline,  but  also  as  regards  the  light  and  shade, 
the  principle  shown  in  Fig.  34,  page  110,  coming  into 
play.  All  work  of  any  pretension  requires  to  be  brought 
out,  as  it  were,  by  means  of  shadows  and  the  thickness 
of  the  letters,  which  are  supposed  to  be  solids. 
11 


122        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


Fig.  41. 


We  have  pointed  out  the  different  principles  upon 
which  a  correct  perspective  representation  is  based,  and 
this  example  is  afforded  to  show  how  these  rules  are  ap- 
plicable to  a  finished  production.  The  letters  are  not  in 
fstrict  perspective,  or  they  would  vanish  off  in  width 
much  more  rapidly  than  they  do  in  the  wood-cut.  A 
license  is  taken,  in  order  to  bring  the  writing  out  promi- 
nently ;  but  this  liberty,  though  it  would  be  at  once  de- 
tected by  a  master  of  the  art,  is  not  sufficiently  glaring 
to  be  detected  by  the  uninitiated.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  vanishing  point  is  not  in  the  centre,  but  slightly 
to  the  right,  and  that,  consequently,  the  letters  on  this 
side  vanish  more  rapidly  than  those  on  the  left,  the  sides 
of  the  imaginary  building  being,  of  course,  equal  in 
length.  In  a  representation  by  means  of  lines,  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  give  due  force  to  the  shadows  and 
gradations  ;  but  in  painting  this  difficulty  is  obviated,  as 
the  colors  employed  may  be  shaded  off  with  the  greatest 
nicety  and  regularity.  A  great  deal  depends  upon  the 
proper  execution  of  this  part  of  the  drawing.  The  ef- 
fect of  distance  can  be  rendered  much  better  with  colors 
than  it  can  by  the  lines  of  a  wood-cut,  and  hence  the 
foregoing  illustration  must  be  regarded  rather  as  an  in- 
dication than  as  positively  carrying  out  the  ideal  we 
should  have  presented  if  it  had  been  practicable  to  have 
used  coloi^s  in  this  work. 


LETTERS  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


123 


The  writer  may  be  so  far  advanced,  and  have  siicli  a 
correct  eye,  that  it  may  not  be  necessary  for  him  to  in- 
troduce a  multiplicity  of  lines  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
exact  proportional  diminution  of  the  letters  as  they  re- 
cede, or  the  proportional  expansion  of  them  as  they  ad- 
vance. But  at  the  same  time,  the  most  experienceu  are 
liable  to  fail  sometimes,  and,  therefore,  it  is  im[)ortant 
that  every  one  should  be  able  to  test  the  accuracy  or 
otherwise  of  his  work.  The  most  skilful  arithmetician 
may  err  in  his  computations,  but  he  always  has  some 
ready  method  of  proving  their  correctness ;  and  when- 
ever a  result  diftering  from  what  was  anticipated  be 
arrived  at,  the  calculation  is  at  once  tested  by  some  rule, 
and,  if  needed,  a  correction  is  applied.  So  it  should  be 
in  regard  to  perspective.  Whenever  the  eye  perceives, 
or  fancies  it  perceives,  any  letter  that  is  unduly  extend- 
ed or  contracted,  or  any  line  that  does  not  appear  alto- 
gether satisfactory,  the  writing  should  at  once  be  tested 
in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  perspective.  Hence,  a 
knowledge  of  these  rules  should  be  obtained  at  the  earli- 
est possible  moment.  There  are  so  many  things  in  sign- 
writing  and  in  decoration  to  which  the  rules  of  perspec- 
time  apply  that  it  should  be  studied  much  more  exten- 
sively by  art- workmen  than  it  has  ever  yet  been.  The 
time  occupied  in  acquiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of  this 
invaluable  art  would  be  well  spent.  It  is  the  key -stone 
to  so  much  that  is  essentially  useful  and  beautiful,  that 
it  is  strange  it  should  be  made  subservient  in  all  the 
Government  Schools  of  Design  throughout  the  kingdom 
to  the  study  of  mere  surface  ornamentation  and  drawing 
from  the  antique.  Of  course,  in  a  work  of  this  nature, 
it  would  be  inexpedient  to  enter  at  any  length  into  the 
subject  of  perspective,  which  is  only  introduced  in  a  sub- 
sidiary sense,  and  upon  which  so  many  books  treat  in  a 
clear  and  exhaustive  manner,  that  to  dilate  upon  it  fully 
would  be  little  better  than  a  waste  of  space.  We  shall, 
•■A  ^refore,  content  ourselves  with  giving  but  one  other 


124       SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


wood-cut  illustrating  the  rules  of  perspective,  as  they 
apply  to  the  art  of  lettering,  and  by  which  the  accuracy 
of  any  writing  that  has  been  set  out  by  the  eye,  unaided 
by  lines,  may  be  proved,  if  it  seem  necessary.  The  dia- 
gram (Fig.  42)  on  the  next  page,  will  serve  this  pur- 
pose. It  is  constructed  to  show — first,  the  true  and 
proper  mode  of  ascertaining  the  proportionate  perspec- 
tive dimensions  of  the  letters  as  they  recede  towards  the 
vanishing  point,  or,  it  may  be,  as  they  advance  towards 
the  spectator  from  the  vanishing  point ;  and,  then,  it 
may  be  used  to  test  any  apparent  imperfection,  or  any 
line  which  does  not  present  a  satisfactory  appearance,  to 
find  out,  in  what,  if  any,  particular  the  faihire  consists. 

In  this  problem,  the  three  skeleton  letters,  THE, 
may  be  called  the  geometrical  drawing  or  elevation,  just 
as  if  they  were  a  building,  and  they  are  so  treated  in  the 
diagram.  The  student  having  set  out  the  letters,  or  ele- 
vation, let  him  make  the  vertical  line  I  H  of  the  same 
measurement  as  the  height  of  the  letters  in  the  elevation, 
and  let  the  horizontal  line  B  be  a  trifle  lower  down  than 
the  bottom  of  the  vertical  line  I  H.*  Having  drawn  the 
horizontal  line  B,  let  E  be  the  vanishing  point.  From 
the  top  of  the  vertical  line  at  i,  draw  the  oblique  line  9  to 
the  vanishing  point  E ;  then  from  the  vertical  lineiJ  draw 
the  line  H  for  the  bottom  of  the  letters ;  these  two  lines 
represent  the  perspective  inclination  of  the  upper  and 
lower  lines  of  the  geometrical  drawing  or  elevation — 
that  is,  THE.  The  perspective  distances  or  widths  of 
the  letters  may  be  found  by  drawing  from  their  base  on 
the  line  A  the  diagonal  lines  to  the  point  of  distance  F, 
which  is  always  on  the  horizontal  line.  The  diagonal 
lines  intersecting  the  line  c,  will  give  the  pers])ective 
widths  of  the  letters.    Vertical  lines  should  be  drawn 


*The  horizontal  line,  as  has  been  explained,  may  be  higher  or 
lower,  accordiii^j;  to  fancy.  In  this  instance  it  is  lower  tlian  the 
letters,  to  vary  it  from  either  of  tiie  i)receding  examples. 


126        SIGN  WKITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


fro:n  tliese  points  of  intersection,  and  the  letters  will  be 
in  correct  perspective. 

A  little  more  detailed  explanation  may  be  called  for. 
To  ascertain  the  correct  perspective  of  the  horizontal  top 
of  the  T,  it  is  necessary  to  draw  a  vertical  line  from  each 
extremity  to  the  base  line  A,  and  from  these  to  draw  the 
oblique  lines,  intersecting  c  to  F.  Lines  from  the  bottom 
of  the  upright  part  of  the  T  are  carried  through  c,  in  the 
same  way  to  F,  and  vertical  lines  drawn  from  the  points 
of  contact  on  c  give  the  correct  perspective  width  of  the 
upright  part  of  the  T  in  the  geometric  elevation.  Tiie 
lines  from  the  base  of  the  H  and  the  E,  intersecting  c, 
give  their  respective  perspective  widths  in  a  simihir 
manner.  By  observing  the  diagram,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  upright  stroke  of  each  of  the  letters  in  perspective 
gradually  diminishes  in  width  as  it  recedes  from  the 
eye :  as  also  does  the  side  thickness  of  the  letters,  but  in 
a  lesser  degree. 

There  are  other  lines  in  the  diagram  which  require 
explanation.  The  line  D  is  merely  added  to  show  how 
the  letters — T  H  E — would  recede  towards  the  vanish- 
ing point,  if  they  were  of  greater  depth,  and  extended 
below  the  horizontal  line.  In  this  case,  the  eye,  instead 
of  being  in  a  position  to  see  the  under  thickness  of  the 
bottom  of  the  letters,  as  in  the  upper  perspective  repre- 
sentation, is  above  the  level  of  the  base — being,  of  course, 
at  B — and,  accordingly,  the  thickness  goes  off  towards 
the  point  of  distance  F  in  an  upward  direction,  as  shown 
by  line  g.  The  thickness  of  all  the  other  letters  would 
also  go  upward  in  the  same  direction,  meeting  in  F. 

If  the  perspective  [)lan  were  the  height  of  the  vertical 
line  I  J,  and  the  horizontal  line  B  in  the  same  position 
as  in  this  diagram,  the  outline  feet  of  the  letters  on  D 
would  be  the  correct  perspective. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  letters  which  belong  to  this 
class,  without  having  any  claim  to  being  in  correct  per- 
spective, further  than  as  regards  each  separate  character. 


LETTERS  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


127 


Just  as  in  blocked  letters,  the  thickness  is  represented  by 
a  sort  of  individual  perspective,  so  it  is  with  writing  of 
the  class  under  noti(?e.  Letters  may  have  the  appearance 
of  standing  in  different  positions,  of  tumbling  about  in  a 
careless  manner,  hanging  on  hooks,  or  tied  to  rods,  and 
these  may  be  rendered  highly  effective  if  executed  with 
judgment,  and  on  correct  principles.  This  kind  of  per- 
spective is  altogether  different  from  that  in  which  the 
whole  of  the  writing  is  treated  as  if  it  were  in  perspec- 
tive. An  example  of  the  style  here  indicated  is  sub- 
joined : 


Fig.  43. 


In  typography  these  letters  are  denominated  "  Per- 
spective Italic,"  and  perhaps  a  more  fitting  name  could 
not  be  adopted. 

This  is  a  very  pleasing  art,  and  one  upon  which  the 
sign-writer  may  exercise  his  ingenuity  almost  ad  libitum. 
Sufficient  hints  have  been  given,  we  trust,  to  enable  the 
student  to  thoroughly  comprehend  the  first  princij)les  of 
])erspective,  and  to  apply  them  correctly  to  any  given 
subject. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


COLORS  USED  IN  SIGN  WRITING. 

"Wb  now  commence  what  is  practically  the  second 
divisio.!  of  our  subject.  Hitherto  the  student  has  been 
carried  through  a  simple  course  of  instructiou  in  outline 
drawing,  or  shaping  alphabetic  characters  in  a  variety 
of  styles,  and  the  filling  up  of  the  outline  naturally  re- 
solves itself  into  a  study  of  color,  which  is  the  next  point 
for  consideration. 

This  is  a  wide  and  varied  themef  into  which  it  is  not 
proposed  to  enter  at  very  great  length.  Color,  in  so  far 
as  it  is  understood,  or  ought  to  be  understood,  by  the 
sign-writer,  is  all  that  it  is  intended  to  explain.  The 
higher  branches  of  art  are  altogether  beyond  the  scope 
(/f  the  present  manual,  and  have  been  treated  of  again 
and  again  by  different  writers  on  the  subject.  Most  of 
those  works,  however,  which  are  written  by  artists,  and 
for  artists,  are  of  but  little  use  to  the  student  of  sign- 
writing.  The  vehicles  employed  are  many  of  them  the 
same,  but  the  method  of  using  them  differs  materially. 

For  this  reason,  in  the  pages  which  follow,  the  beaten 
track  of  writers  on  color  is  not  folloWed.  A  practical 
acquaintance  with  the  subject  uj)on  which  we  are  treat- 
ing convinces  us  that  much  error  may  be  obviated  l)y 
setting  down  a  few  plain  facts,  regardless  of  what  all 
preceding  expositors  have  advanced.  Artists  treat  of 
color  in  their  own  way,  as  suitable  for  artists,  and  we 
are  not  acquainted  with  a  single  instance  in  which  the 
subject  of  color  as  applicable  to  sign-writing  has  been 
128 


COLORS  USED  IN  SIGN  WETTING. 


handled.  Hence,  particular  attention  is  requested  to 
the  method  of  practice  here  laid  down. 

And,  first,  we  prefer  to  deal  with  the  colors  them- 
selves, the  vehicles  employed  in  mixinii:  them,  and  then 
to  give  a  few  hints  regarding  their  use,  and  fuch  other 
particulars  as  may  seem  to  be  culled  for,  in  order  that 
the  beginner  may  thoroughly  comprehend  the  subject  in 
all  its  bearings. 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  sign-writer  will  at  times 
require  for  his  purpose  almost  every  color  that  is  manu- 
factured and  sold  as  an  article  of  commerce;  but  this  is 
by  no  means  the  case,  as  so  many  different  hues,  tints, 
and  shades  can  be  obtained  by  mixing  two  or  more 
colors  together.  And,  besides,  there  are  many  colors  in 
favor  with  artists  which  for  the  purpose  of  the  sign- 
writer  are  altogether  unnecessary.  The  following,  how- 
ever, are  quite  indispensable,  and  should  always  be 
amongst  the  writer's  stock  : — 


WHITE  LEAD. 
FLAKE  WHITE,  Or 
ZINC  WHITE. 
CHROME  YELLOW. 
YELLOW  OCHRE. 
RAW  SIENNA. 
BURNT  SIENNA. 
INDIAN  RED. 
VERMILION. 


LAKE  (Crimson  or 
8carlet). 

ROSE  MADDER. 
IVORY  BLACK. 
VEOETABLE  BLACK. 
PRUSSIAN  BLUE. 
FRENCH  ULTRAMARINE, 
EMERALD  GREEN. 


Of  these  colors,  some  are  transparent  and  others  opaque, 
some  are  mineral  and  others  vegetable;  and,  conse- 
quently, a  few  words  as  to  their  nature,  and  the  method 
of  mixing  and  using  them,  seem  to  be  called  for  before 
any  reference  is  made  to  the  laws  of  coloring. 

White  Lead,  which  is  totally  indispensable,  is  used  in 
large  quantities.  It  varies  greatly  in  quality;  and, 
therefore,  too  much  care  cannot  be  bestowed  in  selecting 
it.    That  most  generally  employed  is  procured  ground 


130        SIGN  WrJTING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


in  oil,  and  is  of  the  consistency  of  a  thick  paste.  It 
improves  by  keeping,  okl  white-lead  possessing  greater 
body,  or  covering  capacity,  than  that  newly  manufac- 
tured. The  cheapest  quality  is  decidedly  the  most  ex- 
pensive in  the  end,  and  should  never  form  any  part  of  a 
sign-writer's  stock.  It  is  largely  adulterated  with  sul- 
phate of  baryta.  This  may  be  detected  by  its  insolubil- 
ity in  dilute  nitric  acid,  which  will  entirely  dissolve 
pure  white  lead.  Considering  that  white  lead  is  the 
pigment  most  freqently  mixed  with  colors  to  reduce  their 
tone,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  it  should  be  of 
the  best  quality. 

Flake  White  ranks  next  in  body  or  density  to  white 
lead,  and  is  employed  for  highly-finished  work,  in  which 
a  pure  white  is  needful.  It  is  generally  used  for  the 
finishing  coat,  white  lead  being  almost  always  used 
for  the  first  painting,  because,  owing  to  the  greater 
body  it  possesses,  it  covers  the  ground  color  more  effec- 
tually. 

Zinc  White  has  been  added  to  the  list  of  pigments 
within  the  last  few  years,  and  is  considered  to  be  more 
durable  than  white  lead  or  flake  white.  It  is  extremely 
pure,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of  possessing  little  body  or 
covering  power.  Hence  it  is  not  held  in  such  esteem 
by  the  sign-writer  as  it  is  by  the  artist,  to  whom  this  is 
no  great  detriment,  because  he  can  plaster  on  his  color 
as  thickly  as  he  pleases,  whereas  the  writer  is  necessarily 
limited  to  a  few  thin  layers. 

For  all  the  ordinary  purposes  of  sign- writing,  the 
best  white  lead  will  be  found  sufficient.  It  is  only  in 
very  delicate  and  particular  work  that  either  flake  white 
or  zinc  white  need  be  had  recourse  to. 

The  vehicle  that  is  best  suited  for  thinning  white,  in 
order  to  make  it  of  a  proper  consisteiicy  for  use  with  the 
Bable-hair  pencil,  is  an  admixture  of  turpentine  and  some 
colorless  varnish — copal,  for  instance — in  the  proportion 
of  about  two-thirds  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter. 


COLOKS  USED  IN  SIGN  WRITING. 


131 


Neither  boiled  oil  nor  gold-eize  shoulrl  be  mixed  with 
white,  inasmuch  as  being  of  a  brownish  color  they  would 
inevitably  stain  the  pigment,  and  in  course  of  time  this 
stain  would  deepen  considerably,  so  that  the  white 
would  be  several  degrees  removed  from  its  original  [)uri- 
ty,  assuming,  in  fact,  a  kind  of  dirty  stone  color. 

Ivory  Black,  which,  is  the  purest  and  deepest  of  the 
Dlacks,  is  made  in  forms  resembling  drops,"  and  for 
that  reason  is  sometimes  called  "  drop-black."  It  re- 
quires a  good  deal  of  careful  grinding,  being  somewhat 
hard;  and  unless  it  is  ground  very  fine  it  will  spoil  the 
work.  It  should  be  ground  in  turpentine,  and  diluted 
for  use  with  turpentine,  gold-size,  and  a  little  varnish. 
In  drying,  it  will  become  dull,  and,  consequently,  it 
should  never  be  used  except  when  it  has  to  be  coated 
with  varnish,  which  will  bring  it  back  to  its  original 
intensity.  It  is  a  somewhat  difficult  pigment  to  manage, 
and  requires  much  careful  handling.  If  it  is  thinned 
down  with  too  much  turpentine,  it  will  not  fasten  itself 
upon  the  work,  but  will  "  rub  up,"  as  it  is  called,  on  the 
application  of  varnish,  and  irremediably  spoil  the  work. 
Care  should  be  taken,  therefore,  that  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  gold-size  and  varnish  be  added  to  bind  it  thor- 
oughly and  cause  it  to  adhere  firmly  to  the  ground-color. 
If  the  black  be  required  to  dry  very  rapidly,  gold-size 
alone  should  be  added  to  the  turpentine.  Carriage  pain- 
ters, who  always  use  quick  drying  colors,  put  a  small 
patch  on  their  thumb-nail  to  test  whether  enough  gold- 
size  has  been  added  to  ensure  its  drying  firmly.  In 
about  ten  minutes  the  color  cannot  be  rubbed  off  the 
thumb-nail  if  it  has  a  sufficient  quantity  of  gold-size  to 
bind  it;  but  if  it  has  not,  it  will  crumble  off  under  the 
slightest  friction.  The  reason  is  obvious.  Turpentine, 
being  a  volatile  oil,  has  no  binding  property,  and  any 
color  diluted  with  turpentine  alone,  will  be  easily  re- 
moved as  if  it  were  mixed  with  water,  without  tlie  ad- 
dition of  size  or  glue  to  bind  it.    It  is  always  advisable^ 


132 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


therefore,  to  apply  the  carriage  painter's  test  before  any 
of  the  quick  drying  colors  be  made  use  of. 

Vegetable  Black  is  the  most  pleasant  working  and  the 
cheapest  black  used  by  writers.  It  is  not  quite  so  in- 
tense as  ivory  black,  but  possesses  more  friendly  and 
agreeable  qualities.  The  best  way  to  procure  it  is  to 
buy  it  in  a  dry  state,  in  which  it  resembles  soot,  and  is 
so  exceedingly  light  that  an  ounce  or  two  will  fill  a  gal- 
lon measure.  It  is  free  fruni  grit,  and  only  requires  to 
be  "rubbed  u])''  with  a  palette  knife  on  a  marble  slab, 
instead  of  grinding.  A  small  quantity  of  patent  dryers 
should  be  ad(l('<l,  to  ensure  its  drying  with  a  uniformity 
of  suriaee.  This  is  preferable  to  gold-size,  but  a  little 
varnish  and  turpentine  may  be  employed  in  thinning  it 
for  working  with  the  pencil.  It  is  never  mixed  with 
quick  drying  diluents,  the  same  as  ivory  black.  For 
writing  that  has  not  to  be  varnished,  it  is  indispensable. 
Lamp  black,  which  was  formerly  extensively  employed, 
has  been  superseded  by  vegetable  black,  which  is  supe- 
rior to  it  in  many  respects. 

Vermilion. — There  are  many  kinds  of  red  manufac- 
tured for  the  use  of  the  painter,  those  most  commonly 
employed  being  Indian  red,  Vermilion,  Lake,  and  Rose 
Madder.  These  vary  very  much  both  in  color  and  in 
body.  The  red  most  in  use  by  the  sign-WTiter  is  ver- 
milion, which  is  intense  and  bright.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  vermilion,  or  what  is  sold  under  that  name, 
the  prices  of  which  range  from  about  3d.  to  2s.  per  oz. 
Being  a  heavy  pigment,  it  is  somewhat  expensive.  For 
this  reason  the  inferior  qualities  of  vermilion,  or  rather 
its  imitations,  commonly  called  mock  colors,  are  fre- 
quently employed.  These  mock  colors,  which  are 
known  in  the  trade  as  Derby  reds,  are  exceedingly  tran- 
sitory. When  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays, 
they  turn,  in  a  few  months,  to  a  sort  of  dark  purple- 
brown,  and  subsequently  to  a  dull  black.  On  this  ac- 
count they  should  be  avoided  on  all  work  of  any  impor- 


COLORS  USED  IN  SIGN  WRITING.  133 


tance.  And  besides  this  disadvantage,  these  inferior 
vermilions  do  not  mix  or  work  well,  having  a  tendency 
to  mealiness,  which  prevents  them  from  flowing  freely 
from  the  pencil. 

The  better  kinds  of  vermilion  are  much  more  costly, 
and  far  more  brilliant  than  the  imitations.  Chinese  ver- 
milion is  considered  the  best.  It  may  be  procured  as  a 
fine  powder  done  up  in  small  paper  packets,  lettered  in 
Chinese  characters,  each  packet  containing  one  ounce,  and 
tliese  are  sold  at  one  shilling  each.  Or  it  may  be  bought 
ground  in  oil,  in  the  patent  collapsible  tubes,  at  from  Is. 
to  2s.  per  tube.  Vermilion,  being  a  very  bright  color, 
readily  throws  into  the  shade  any  of  the  common  colors 
sold  under  its  name.  There  are  two  descriptions  of  the 
better  class  of  this  pigment,  sold  in  tubes,  called  respect- 
ively "crimson"  and  "scarlet.'^  Of  tlie  two  the  crim- 
son is  the  more  durable.  But  these  different  vermilions 
are  none  of  them  very  much  to  be  recommended  on  the 
ground  of  permanency.  When  exposed  to  the  sun  even  the 
best  will  lose  its  brilliancy  after  a  few  months,  and  though 
that  may  be  arrested  for  a  time  by  a  coating  of  clear 
durable  varnish,  it  will  be  certain  to  become  dark  in  the 
long  run.  This  is  to  be  regretted,  as  vermilion  is  the 
only  really  intense  bright  red  that  possesses  any  body  in 
itself.  Notwithstanding  this  fugitive  quality,  however, 
it  is  a  color  wliich  is  greatly  prized  by  the  sign-writer, 
and  one  which  he  could  not  well  dispense  with.  Some- 
times in  outside  work  it  is  so  exposed  to  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun  that  there  cannot  be  any  reasonable  probabil- 
ity of  its  retaining  its  original  color  but  for  a  very  short 
time.  When  used  in  such  instances,  it  is  no  doubt  "to 
order,"  and  it  is  hardly  the  province  of  the  writer  to 
object,  on  the  ground  that  it  "  will  not  stand,"  as  the 
expression  is;  for  the  less  durable  the  color  the  sooner 
will  his  services  again  be  in  requisition.  But  it  seems 
something  like  a  waste  of  labor  to  use  it,  as  it  is  often 
used,  on  glass  facias,  either  in  the  thickness  or  in  the 
12 


134 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EAfBOSSlN^G. 


body  of  the  letters,  for  it  is  no  more  lasting  on  glass  than 
it  is  when  exposed  to  the  full  action  of  the  weather. 
Glass-writing  is  presumed  to  be  of  great  durability,  and 
the  gilding,  if  properly  protected,  will  endure  for  a 
length  of  time,  as  also  will  many  colors.  Vermilion, 
however,  has  not  this  quality,  bnt  soon  turns  black,  and 
thus  inseparably  sullies  the  whole  of  the  work  upon 
which  it  is  used,  the  gilding  and  tlie  other  colors  retail- 
ing their  original  brilliancy.  This,  therefore,  is  a  led 
which  ought  seldom  to  be  used  in  glass-writing,  owing 
to  its  fugitive  qualities.  The  beginner  is  pretty  sure  to 
be  tempted  into  a  lavish  employment  of  it;  but  if  he 
watches  the  after-effect,  he  will  soon  discover  that  its 
avoidance  as  far  as  possible  on  work  that  is  intended  to 
be  at  all  permanent  is  desirable,  unless  he  can  afford  tc 
employ  a  very  superior  quality. 

On  some  grounds  vermilion  will  not  cover  with  only 
one  coat,  and  the  work  has  to  be  gone  over  a  second 
time.  When  two  coats  are  necessary,  good  vermilion 
should  be  used  in  both  instances. 

Vermilion  in  a  state  of  powder  may  be  tested  by 
placing  a  dust  of  it  on  a  piece  of  clean  white  paper,  and 
crushing  it  with  the  thumb-nail.  If  pure,  it  will  not 
change  its  color  by  any  amount  of  rubbing ;  but,  if 
adulterated,  it  will  become  a  deep  chrome  yellow,  or  as- 
sume the  appearance  of  red  lead,  with  which  articles  it 
is  mixed  in  order  to  render  it  cheaper.  This  accounts 
for  the  unstable  quality  of  the  inferior  kinds  of  ver- 
milion. 

Lake. — The  other  reds  that  have  any  j^retensions  to 
brilliancy  are  Crimson  and  Scarlet  Lakes  and  Rose  Mad- 
der. These  are  very  pure  transparent  colors ;  and, 
therefore,  they  are  exceedingly  devoid  of  body,  and  on 
that  account  are  not  easily  manageable  in  sign- writing. 
Lake  can  only  be  used  as  a  glaze — that  is,  as  a  transpa- 
rent varnish  to  lay  over  some  suitable  undercolor, — or 
mixed  with  white,  when  it  gives  clear  carnation  tints. 


COLORS  USED  IN  SIGN  WRITING. 


135 


It  is  not  to  be  reconimeiided  on  the  ground  of  perma- 
nency. 

In  this  respect,  Rose  Madder  is  entitled  to  considera- 
tion, being  very  permanent,  and  possessing  all  the  com- 
mendable qualities  which  distinguish  the  lakes.  It  is, 
therefore,  commonly  employed  in  preference  to  any 
otiier  bright  rich  red,  notwithstanding  its  greater  cost. 
The  lakes  can  be  purchased  ground  in  oil  in  small  col- 
lapsible tubes  at  5d.  each,  whilst  a  tube  of  rose  madder 
of  the  same  size  costs  Is.  These  colors,  however,  are 
only  used  on  the  finest  work,  and  generally  in  combina- 
tion with,  or  superposed  upon,  some  other  color.  It 
should  here  be  remarked  that  rose  madder  or  lake  glazed 
over  a  white  ground  has  a  far  richer  effect  then  when 
mixed  up  and  used  with  white.  But  the  beginner  will 
find  it  preferable  to  adopt  the  latter  method  notwith- 
standing, inasmuch  as  he  will  fail  at  the  outset  to  lay 
the  transparent  color  evenly  over  the  surface  to  be  cov- 
ered. In  order  to  effect  this  properly  much  practice  will 
be  necessary.  The  best  way  to  proceed  is  to  thin  the 
color  with  varnish  and  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine, 
and  then  it  will  flow  somewhat  in  drying.  The  pale 
ground  upon  which  this  transparent  glaze  is  laid  should 
be  perfectly  smooth,  all  brush  marks  being  removed  by 
a  gentle  application  of  fine  glass  paper ;  and  the  glaze 
should  be  laid  on  with  a  moderately  large  sable-hair 
pen(iil.  By  mixing  the  transparent  color  with  the  white, 
and  applying  it  as  one  tint,  a  great  deal  of  its  purity  will 
be  destroyed,  though  there  will  be  less  difliculty  in  the 
operation  of  laying  it  on  ;  whilst  on  the  other  hand,  by 
glazing  over  a  purely  white  and  smooth  ground,  the 
purity  of  the  color  will  be  retained,  though  there  is 
a  chance  of  failure  in  the  difficulty  of  spreading  the  glaze 
evenly  over  the  surface  to  be  covered.  A  few  trials  in 
each  of  these  methods  of  procedure  will  prove  the  cor- 
rectness of  these  observations,  and  the  practitioner  will 
soon  discover  the  course  which  it  is  advisable  for  him  to 
pdo[)t. 


136        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


Carmine  is  another  exceedingly  charming  red,  very 
much  of  the  same  nature  as  lake,  but  it  may  be  dis- 
pensed with  by  the  sign-writer.  Owing  to  its  great 
brilliancy  it  is  much  prized  by  flower  painters,  to  whom 
it  is  indispensable.  Unfortunately,  it  is  not  to  be  de- 
pended u})on  for  durability. 

Indian  Red  is  a  serviceable  color,  working  very  agree- 
ably, and  possessing  great  body,  one  coat  being  sufficient 
to  hide  any  ground  color  over  which  it  may  be  laid.  It 
is  of  a  deep  purple  cast,  and  is  very  useful  as  a  shade 
tint  to  vermilion,  being  darker  in  tone,  and  less  brilliant. 
As  a  ground  color  it  is  in  great  repute.  It  will  stand 
for  a  long  time,  retaining  its  color  to  the  last.  When 
used  as  a  ground,  it  should  be  mixed  with  boiled  oil, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  dryers  ;  or,  it  may  be  mixed 
witli  turpentine,  with  a  little  gold-size  or  varnish  to  bind 
it.  For  this  purpose  one  part  of  gold-size  or  varnish 
to  four  parts  of  turpentine  will  be  about  the  quantity 
necessary.  When  mixed  in  this  way  it  dries  very  rapid- 
ly. It  should  be  laid  on  without  much  teasing  or  work- 
ing about,  care  being  taken  that  no  part  of  the  space  to 
be  covered  is  missed,  because  any  attempt  to  retouch 
after  the  color  is  dry  will  show  itself.  The  color  mixed 
in  this  way  will  dry  dead  or  flat,  and  should  be  varnish- 
ed— the  varnish  being  rubbed  on  very  thin — and  allowed 
to  dry  before  the  writing  is  proceeded  with.  Of  course, 
if  the  Indian  Red  be  mixed  with  boiled  oil,  it  will  be 
longer  in  drying,  and  when  dry  it  will  appear  glossy,  so 
that  it  will  not  require  varnishing  before  the  writing  is 
executed.  It  may  here  be  observed  that  varnish  stands 
out  better — that  is,  appears  brighter — on  a  dead  or  flat 
color  than  upon  a  bright  or  glossy  one.  This  applies, 
not  merely  to  Indian  Red,  but  to  all  colors.  Hence  it 
is  that  coach-painters  invariably  mix  their  colors  with 
turpentine  and  gold -size. 

Purple  Brown  is  another  red  color,  deeper  in  tone 
and  not  quite  so  pure  as  Indian  Red,  but  it  is  very  use- 


COLORS  USED  IN  SIGN  WRITING. 


137 


fill  as  a  ground  color,  and  also  in  shading.  It  should 
be  mixed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  preceding.  It  may 
easily  be  imitated  by  a  mixture  of  vermilion  and  vege- 
table black  ;  but,  of  course,  this  is  not  at  all  a  commenda- 
ble operation,  the  purple  brown  being  much  cheaper  than 
a  mixture  of  vermilion  and  black.  It  can  be  bought  at 
a  cheap  rate  in  a  dry  state,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to 
grind  ;  or  it  can  be  procured  already  ground  in  oil. 

Light  Red,  Red  Lead,  and  Venetian  Red  are  seldom 
used  by  the  sign-writer,  except  for  grounding,  or  to  re- 
ceive some  brighter  color.  Red  lead  may  be  dispensed 
with  altogether,  as  it  is  not  permanent. 

French  Ultramarine. — The  most  serviceable  blue  for 
the  sign-writer  is  French  ultramarine,  which  is  a  cheap 
and  good  substitute  for  the  genuine  article,  the  price  of 
vvhicli  places  it  beyond  the  reach  of  the  sign-writer. 
French  ultramarine  is  a  permanent,  kindly  working 
color,  and  affords  a  variety  of  clear  tints  when  mixed 
with  white.  It  is  a  brilliant  blue,  and  preserves  its 
purity  when  reduced  in  tone  by  the  addition  of  white. 
It  may  be  deepened  by  Prussian  blue  or  indigo,  foi 
shading;  or  by  a  trifling  addition  of  vegetable  black. 

Prussian  Bkie  is  another  serviceable  color,  but  not  so 
brilliant  as  the  preceding.  It  is  useful  for  blue  grounds, 
but  owing  to  its  extreme  depth  it  requires  the  addition 
of  white  to  bring  out  the  color.  Used  in  its  pure  state, 
it  has  the  appearance  of  a  fine  lustrous  black,  and  a  com- 
mon black  looks  grey  in  contact  with  it.  Prussian  blue 
is  a  good  working  color,  and  a  quick  dryer.  It  should 
be  sparingly  mixed  with  other  colors,  as  its  intensity  ren- 
ders it  dangerous  and  overpowering  in  its  effects.  A 
small  piece  the  size  of  a  pea  would  tinge  two  or  three 
pounds  of  any  light  tint.  Many  painters  mix  a  small 
quantity  of  vermilion  with  the  blue  to  neutralize  a 
plightly  greenish  tendency  which  it  possesses  when  used 
by  itseif. 

The  other  blues  are  Iiitense  Blue,  which  is  very  simi- 
12* 


138       SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


lar  to  French  ultramarine ;  Antwerp  Blue,  Indigo,  some- 
thing like  Prussian  blue,  but  not  quite  so  bright,  and 
one  or  two  other  descriptions  which  may  be  disregarded, 
the  above  being  sufficient  for  every  purpose. 

Chrome  Yellow. — There  are  several  kinds  of  chrome, 
but  those  most  generally  used  are  known  as  pale,  me- 
dium, and  deep, — the  former  being  almost  a  straw  color, 
and  the  latter  approaching  a  deep  orange.  These  colors, 
when  mixed  with  white  lead,  are  used  as  substitutes  for 
gold.  They  are  seldom  required  in  a  pure  form.  It  is 
usual  to  procure  chrome  yellow  in  a  dry  state,  and  to  rub 
it  up  with  the  white-lead  on  the  palette. 

Yellow  Ochre  is  a  serviceable  color  for  thicknesses, 
but  is  not  so  brilliant  as  the  foregoing.  That  purchased 
in  the  metal  tubes  is  most  convenient,  as  it  is  not  often 
required  in  sufficiently  large  quantities  to  make  it  worth 
while  to  grind  it  and  prepare  it  for  use. 

Raw  Sienna  is  another  suitable  color  for  thicknesses, 
it  is  a  brownish  yellow,  and  is  a  clear  and  friendly  work- 
ing pigment.    It  is  quite  permanent. 

Burnt  Sienna. — This  is  an  invaluable  color,  being  a 
rich  transparent  reddish  brown,  eminently  adapted  for 
shading,  and  for  glazing  over  gold-leaf.  It  should  al- 
ways be  procured  in  the  metal  tubes,  because  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  grind  it  by  hand,  and  unless  it  be  perfectly 
free  from  grit  it  will  dry  spotted  and  impair  the  beauty 
of  the  work.  As  a  rule  it  is  a  bad  dryer,  and  requires 
to  be  forced  with  gold-size.  Turpentine  should  not  be 
used  to  dilute  it  with,  except  it  be  in  a  very  small  quan- 
tity ;  but  it  may  be  thinned  with  varnish. 

Vandyke  Brovm,  a  rich  deep  transparent  brown,  is 
useful  for  glazing,  and  especially  for  markings  on  gold. 
The  remarks  with  reference  to  Burnt  Sienna  apply 
equally  to  this  color. 

Emerald  Green  is  the  most  vivid  of  the  greens,  and  is 
a  valuable  color  to  the  sign-writer.  It  is  light  in  tone, 
and  cannot  be  imitated  by  any  mixture  of  yellow  and 


COLORS  USED  IN  SIGN  WRITING. 


139 


blue.  It  should  always  be  bought  in  tubes,  and  not  in 
a  dry  state,  because  it  is  difficult  to  get  the  powder  suf- 
ficiently incorporated  with  the  diluents  to  work  well. 
The  tube  color  being  thoroughly  ground,  this  difficulty  is 
obviated.  When  used  by  itself,  it  will  be  necessary  to  go 
tvvice  over  the  work,  as  it  possesses  but  little  body,  if 
mixed  with  white,  its  opacity  is  increased,  and  one  coat 
will  generally  be  enough  ;  but,  of  course,  its  tint  is  low- 
ered in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  white  used  with  it. 
It  is  a  somewhat  tardy  dryer,  and  should,  therefore,  be 
forced  with  gold-size  or  patent  dryers.  A  common  kind 
of  this  green  is  known  as  navy  green,  which  is  service- 
able for  grounding,  either  by  itself  or  when  reduced  by 
white. 

The  sign-writer  thins  his  colors,  in  almost  all  cases, 
with  turpentine,  varnish,  and  gold-size,  and  sometimes 
it  is  found  necessary  to  use  boiled  oil ;  but  in  no  in- 
Btaace  is  linseed  or  poppy  oil  required. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


HINTS  ON  COLORING. 

tnE  primary  colors  are  yellow,  red,  and  blue;  the 
tcy\)ndary  are  orange,  green,  and  purple  ;  and  the  ter- 
ii(*t'y  are  citron,  russet,  and  olive.  Orange  is  composed 
of  fellow  and  red  ;  green  of  yellow  and  blue  ;  and  pur- 
pltt  of  blue  and  red.  Citron  is  a  compound  of  orange 
auti  green  ;  russet  of  purple  and  orange  ;  and  olive  of 
purple  and  green. 

Now,  these  colors  vary  in  "  tint,''  "  shade,"  and 
*'  nue" — terms  which  are  often  used  indiscriminately 
even  by  persons  who  are  in  the  constant  habit  of  paint- 
ing in  some  form  or  other.  But  these  terms  are  perfect- 
ly distinct,  and  express  different  meanings,  which  it  is 
proper  should  be  clearly  understood. 

Every  compound  of  the  three  primary  colors  is  a  hue. 
For  instance,  green  being  composed  of  yellow  and  blue, 
may  vary  in  hue  from  the  yellowest  to  the  bluest;  a 
purple,  which  is  a  compound  of  blue  and  red,  may  vary 
in  hue  as  one  or  other  of  these  colors  ])redominate ;  and 
an  orange,  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  red,  may  vary  from 
the  yellowest  to  the  reddest.  A  nuiltiplicity  of  hues 
may  thus  be  formed  of  two  primaries.  But  a  still 
greater  number  may  be  made  by  a  combination  of  the 
three  primaries,  which  form  the tertiaries,  by  subordina- 
tiug  or  giving  predominance  to  either  of  them.  A  color 
ttiny  be  changed  in  hue  without  any  change  taking  place 
in  Its  nauie.  Thus,  when  we  speak  of  a  green,  it  may 
140 


HINTS  ON  COLORING. 


141 


be  any  hue  between  blue  and  yellow;  or  purple,  wheth- 
er it  incline  to  red  or  blue,  is  still  called  purple  ;  simi- 
larly with  regard  to  the  tertiaries,  the  name  of  the  color 
is  the  same  whichever  of  the  primaries  predominates. 

If,  now,  we  take  either  of  the  primaries,  secondaries, 
or  tertiaries,  and  reduce  them  in  tone,  with  an  admixture 
of  white,  we  at  once  change  the  names  of  the  colors,  and 
get  a  tint.  A  red,  for  instance,  may,  by  the  introduction 
of  white,  be  made  to  vary  in  tint  from  its  most  intense 
state  through  every  gradation  up  to  white,  changing  its 
name  to  carnation,  pink,  salmon,  and  so  forth,  according 
as  the  red  or  white  predominates.  This  applies  not  only 
to  the  primaries,  but  to  the  different  hues,  which,  equal- 
ly with  the  intense  colors,  are  capable  of  every  state  of 
dilution  up  to  white.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the 
variety  of  tint  is  immensely  greater  than  that  of  hue. 

If  we  take  a  color  or  hue  in  its  intense  state  and  in- 
tro(^uce  black,  instead  of  a  tint,  we  get  a  shade;  for  by 
shade  is  meant  every  gradation  of  a  color  or  hue  from 
its  original  purity  down  to  black.  The  shades,  like  the 
tints,  have  distinct  names;  thus,  if  black  be  added  to 
red,  the  result  will  be  what  is  called  a  "  chocolate.^^ 

It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  there  can  be  no 
perfectly  harmonious  arrangement  of  colors  from  which 
either  of  the  primary  colors  is  absent;  just  as  in  form, 
either  structural  or  decorative,  there  can  be  no  perfect  com- 
position or  harmony  unless  there  is  a  proper  balancing  of 
straight,  inclined,  and  curved  lines.  There  should  in 
every  arrangement  be  one  leading  color,  to  which  the 
others  should  play  only  a  subordinate  part.  If  bright 
and  vivid  colors  are  used  with  discrimination,  they  add 
richness  and  grandeur;  but  if  they  are  applied  without 
reference  to  place  or  quantity  they  are  apt  to  become 
gaudy  and  offensive.  Harmony  consists,  therefore,  in  a 
proper  balancing  of  the  different  parts,  by  keeping  some 
colors  in  due  subordination  and  giving  prominence  to 
others.    In  stating  that  the  three  primaries  should  be 


142        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


present,  it  is  not  intended  to  imply  that  they  should  all 
appear  in  full  strength,  because  they  may  be  diluted  with 
wliite,  and  be  used  only  as  tints;  or  they  may  be  com- 
bined with  black,  and  be  used  merely  as  shades.  In 
either  case,  they  serve  to  balance  the  arrangement,  and 
cannot  be  omitted  without  detracting  from  the  beauty 
of  the  work. 

Of  all  the  decorative  arts,  sign-writing  is  that,  proba- 
bly, which  offers  the  widest  scope  for  the  use  of  intense 
colors.  The  ground  on  which  the  lettering  is  painted 
has  a  neutralizing  effect,  because  the  space  uncovered 
by  the  writing  is  generally  so  much  greater  than  that 
covered.  Consequently,  however  nmch  the  colors  used 
for  the  letters  and  the  ground  may  be  antagonistic,  the 
comparatively  small  limit  of  the  one  and  the  largeness 
of  the  other  have  a  counterbalancing  tendency,  and  the 
result  is,  practically,  successful.  This  accounts  for  the 
great  variety  of  colors  that  may  be  and  often  are  intro- 
duced on  a  single  board  or  other  surface  without  any  ap- 
parent harshness  resulting  from  their  combination. 

It  is  a  prevalent  error  amongst  the  uninitiated  to 
consider  that  the  arrangement  of  colors  is  a  matter  of 
fancy.  Most  persons  know  that  there  are  three  primarj'- 
colors,  and  they  think  that  these  maybe  used  in  all  sorts 
of  capricious  combinations.  But  it  has  been  proved  by 
the  greatest  scientific  authorities  that  the  phenomena  of 
colors  are  regulated  and  governed  by  irrefragable  laws 
of  harmony  in  their  combinations,  and  that  they  can  no 
more  be  used  upon  any  principle  of  haphazard  than  can 
the  notes  in  a  melody  or  other  musical  composition. 
What  would  be  thought  of  a  composer  who  should  ima- 
gine that,  by  selecting  a  number  of  musical  notes  at  ran- 
dom and  arranging  them  consecutively,  he  would  suc- 
ceed in  producing  a  piece  of  music  that  would  delight 
the  ear?  And  yet  this  is  precisely  what  many  people 
do  in  regard  to  colors.  They  place  them  in  all  sorts  of 
whimsical  juxtaiiositions,  and  when  they  have  got  a  sort 


HINTS  ON  COLORING. 


143 


of  badly-arraiigcd  patchwork,  flatter  themselves  they 
liave  a  refined  taste  and  a  good  eye  for  color. 

Many  writers  and  house  painters  are  deficient  in  this 
respect,  and  others  who  have  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
subject  are  placed  in  the  position  of  having  to  pander  to 
the  tastes  of  their  employers.  A  certain  class  of  persons 
insist  upon  having  their  work  done  in  exact  accordance 
with  some  particular  fancy  of  their  own,  and  the  writer 
is  obliged  to  comply,  unless  it  be  that  for  his  own  credit 
he  abandons  the  work  altogether,  which  course,  however, 
is,  for  obvious  reasons,  but  seldom  adopted.  To  this 
fact,  no  doubt,  may  be  attributed  a  great  deal  of  the  un- 
sightly and  inartistic  writing  which  occasionally  meets 
tlie  eye.  As  a  rule,  an  experienced  sign-writer  has 
some  amount  of  good  taste,  and  if  left  to  himself  will 
not  execute  anything  positively  offensive.  He  knows, 
practically,  what  effect  a  given  combination  of  colors 
will  produce,  but  if  he  is  not  permitted  to  have  a  voice 
in  the  matter,  it  is  no  wonder  that  his  work  oftentimes 
will  not  bear  critical  inspection.  This  is  to  be  regret- 
ted for  the  sake  of  his  art  generally,  because  it  tends  to 
keep  it  down  to  a  lower  level  tlian  it  ought  to  occupy. 

The  style  or  sentiment  of  the  coloring  should  be  in 
accordance  with  the  subject,  varying  from  the  low-toned 
or  solemn  to  the  gay  or  lively — the  one  being  appropri- 
ate for  the  undertaker  or  mourning  warehouse,  and  the 
other  for  the  pushing  tradesman  or  the  modern  public- 
house.  It  is  curious  to  notice  how  these  different  trades- 
men will,  when  instructing  a  writer,  speak  of  "a  good 
showy  sign."  Gold  and  black,  or  grey,  would,  in  all 
probability,  represent  the  undertaker's  idea  of  showy; 
whilst  in  the  other  case,  nothing  less  than  a  plenti- 
ful use  of  gold  leaf,  ])()sitive  colors,  and  violent  contrast 
would  be  tolerated. 

Subjoined  are  a  few  hints  on  the  method  of  prac- 
tice generally  followed  by  the  sigJl-^vriter.  The  painted 
surface  on  which  the  writing  has  to  be  effected,  must  be 


144        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


gently  rubbed  over  with  a  piece  of  dark  chamois  leather 
oi"  a  wetted  sponge,  and  carefully  wiped  dry,  before  the 
letters  are  set  out.  If  this  is  neglected,  the  color  will 
neither  flow  freely  from  the  pencil,  nor  adhere  to  the 
ground,  but  will  display  a  tendency  to  run  off,  assuming 
a  honeycomb  or  spotty  appearance.  This  is  technically 
called  ^'cissing,''  but  we  are  not  aware  from  whence  the 
word  is  derived.  It  may  be  a  mere  provincialism.  At 
any  rate,  unless  the  painted  ground  be  prepared  by  wet- 
ting, it  will  be  impossible  for  the  writer  to  proceed  with 
any  satisfaction,  as  his  colors  will  "  ciss,''  and  each  out- 
line will  require  to  be  gone  over  repeatedly  with  the 
sable  pencil  before  the  color  will  adhere,  causing  nmch 
waste  of  time  and  annoyance  to  the  workman.  On  a 
newly-painted  wall  the  space  to  be  written  upon  may  be 
rubbed  over  with  soft  chalk,  which  will  serve  the  same 
purpose  as  wetting,  though  it  is  not  so  cleanly. 

TUv.  letters  are  then  set  out  with  pipe-clay,  and  after- 
wards outlined  with  a  sable-hair  pencil,  by  which  all 
the  imperfections  noticeable  in  the  setting  out  are  cor- 
rected. The  young  writer  will  at  first  be  puzzled  to 
make  a  neat  line  with  the  sable  pencil,  because  when  it 
is  charged  with  color  it  is  inclined  to  droop  at  the  point, 
and  much  practice  is  necessary  before  the  pencil  can  be 
guided  exactly  where  it  is  required  to  go.  Beginners 
are  apt  to  make  the  outlines  of  the  letters  by  a  series  of 
short  fitful  strokes  with  the  pencil,  but  the  better  plan 
is  to  strike  each  line  boldly,  without  much  ^Ueasing," 
almost,  in  fact,  without  lifting  the  pencil, — and  then,  if 
the  line  be  not  satisfactory,  any  improvement  can  be 
effected.  At  the  outset  it  will  be  found  difficult  to  pro- 
ceed without  giving  a  multiplicity  of  touches  in  outlining 
with  the  pencil,  especially  in  the  case  of  large  letters, 
but  practice  will  overcome  the  difficulty,  if  it  be  carried 
on  with  that  object;  whereas,  if  the  beginner  acquires 
the  habit  of  making  his  outline  by  a  series  of  short, 
broken  strokes,  he  will  not  find  it  easy  subsequently  to 


HINTS  ON  COLORING. 


145 


depart  from  this  method  of  procedure.  The  plan  recom- 
mended is  the  most  expeditious,  and  is  followed  by  all 
the  best  writers.  When  the  letters  have  been  outlined, 
the  next  thing  is  to  fill  them  in,  and  this  is  done  by 
means  of  a  larger  sable,  the  hairs  of  which  are  somewhat 
shorter  than  those  used  for  outlining.* 

All  letters  of  a  light  color  painted  on  a  dark  ground, 
nuist  be  gone  over  twice,  and  sometimes  three  times,  be- 
fore the  ground  is  thoroughly  covered.  White  letters, 
for  instance,  will  not  cover  a  dark  ground,  unless  there 
are  at  least  two  layers  of  the  white,  one  being  super- 
posed over  the  other,  by  which  solidity  will  be  obtained. 
When  the  letters  are  large,  it  will  be  necessary  to  go 
three  times  over  them  to  ensure  their  being  perfectly 
solid  in  appearau(!e.  The  object  is  to  cover  the  ground 
thoroughly,  so  that  no  trace  of  it  shows  through  the  let- 
ters ;  but  as  the  white  has  not  sufficient  body  to  cover 
the  dark  ground  in  one  layer,  this  want  of  bo<:ly  or  cov- 
ering power  is  compensated  by  the  application  of  suc- 
cessive layers.  The  same  applies  to  white  tinged  with 
any  color.  Even  some  of  the  dark  colors — those  that 
have  but  little  body — often  require  a  second  coat.  Ver- 


*  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  select  writing  pencils  of  the 
finest  quality.  The  most  costly  are  the  cheapest  in  the  end,  hav- 
ing regard,  not  merely  to  the  length  of  {\\vf^  that  the  pencil  will 
last,  but  to  the  greater  rapidity  with  which  the  writing  can  be  per- 
formed by  a  good  one.  A  l)ad  pencil  is  a  nuisance  at  any  time, 
and  prevents  the  writer  from  making  the  rapid  progress  that  he 
would  do  with  a  good  one,  to  say  nothing  of  the  annoyance  it  is 
pretty  sure  to  occasion.  For  some  purposes  the  common  camel- 
|iair  pencils  are  serviceable  ;  but  f  r  those  colors  which  have  a  lead 
basis,  and  are  consequently  very  heavy,  they  are  next  to  useless, 
the  weight  of  the  color  causing  them  to  sag  or  bend  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  is  difficult  to  guide  them  with  any  precision.  These 
pencils,  however,  may  be  advantageously  employed  for  glazing 
with  transparent  colors  diluted  with  a  large  proportion  of  varnish. 
Sable  pencils  are  generally  used  by  writers.  These  are  very 
durable,  and  being  stifler  than  the  camel  hair,  are  particularly 
adapted  for  the  heavy  colors. 


13 


146.        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


milion  on  a  light  ground  will  be  improved  by  having  at 
least  two  layers.  When  vermilion  is  used,  some  writers 
put  on  for  the  first  coat  a  common  red-lead,  and  finish 
up  with  vermilion.  This  is  a  dangerous  practice,  be- 
cause the  lead  basis  will  destroy  the  finishing  color, 
however  pure  it  may  be,  and  in  a  few  months  it  will 
turn  to  a  sort  ^f  muddy  chocolate.  In  all  cases,  the 
vermilion  itself  should  be  used  for  the  first  as  well  as 
the  finishing  coat.  It  is  a  poor  economy  that  saves  a 
few  pence,  and  spoils  the  work  in  consequence.  In  this 
respect,  the  employer  is  quite  at  the  mercy  of  the  work- 
man, for,  not  being  a  practical  painter,  he  can  never  tell 
wliat  material  is  being  used ;  and  it  is  sometimes  the 
case  that  the  painter  himself  is  ignorant  of  the  chemical 
action  of  the  colors  upon  each  other. 

Vegetable  black,  Avhen  employed  as  directed  on  page 
132,  will  cover  any  color  upon  which  it  may  be  placed, 
and  is  a  most  agreeable  working  color.  The  only  other 
colors  that  will  cover  with  one  coat,  are  chocolate ;  pur- 
ple brown;  Indian  red;  a  common  grass  green,  made 
by  mixing  Prussian  blue  and  chrome  yellow  ;  and  a  few 
other  compound  colors. 

Those  that  will  not  cover  are  white,  vermilion,  ultra- 
marine, emerald  green,  orange,  purple ;  and  the  trans- 
parent colors — burnt  sienna,  Vandyke  brown,  lake,  etc. 

We  now  proceed  to  give  a  few  particulars  as  to  the 
most  common  styles  of  coloring  to  be  seen  in  sign-writ- 
ing. 

Lettering  on  a  ground  of  ivory  black  is  always  attrac- 
tive, and  if  the  dilfereiit  rows  of  letters  are  varied  in  tint, 
and  prominence  given  to  the  more  important  lines  by 
judicious  contrast  of  colors,  the  result  will  be  very  strik- 
ing. Emerald  green  diluted  with  white,  or  used  in  its 
intense  state,  has  a  rich  a])])carance.  In  contrast  with 
this,  other  lines  may  be  wiitten  with  carnation,  a  mix- 
ture of  vermilion  and  white.'.  For  lines  that  are  of  sec- 
ondary import,  a  diluted  purple — composed  of  French 


HINTS  ON  COLORING. 


147 


ultramarine,  vermilion,  and  white — may  be  used.  These 
three  tints,  if  judiciously  employed,  will  not  require 
any  kind  of  thickness  or  outline  of  another  color;  and, 
of  course,  the  ground  being  black,  a  cast-shade  is  unne- 
cessary. 

A  plain  gold  or  white  letter  on  a  black  ground  is 
suitable  for  some  purposes ;  but  yellows^nd  reds  in  full 
strength,  or  unmixed  with  white,  never  look  well  on 
black,  as  they  have  a  tawdry  effect. 

On  a  chocolate,  Indian  red,  or  purple  ground,  also, 
letters  of  different  colors,  reduced  in  tone  by  an  admix- 
ture of  white,  may  be  used  with  powerful  effect,  especially 
when  brought  up  with  a  thickness  and  shadow.  It  is 
important  to  observe  the  distinction  between  the  black 
ground  and  the  chocolate,  inasmuch  as,  while  the  for- 
mer, in  scientific  nomenclature,  is  not  a  color  the  latter 
is.  Consequently,  as  the  rule  is  that  one  color  should 
not  overlie  another,  the  letters  which  are  written  in  dif- 
ferent tints  on  the  chocolate  ground,  must  be  separated, 
as  it  were,  from  the  ground  by  means  of  a  gold  or  white 
line  around  their  edges.  In  the  case  of  the  black  ground 
no  such  edging  is  required,  the  colored  letters  not  being 
upon  a  colored  ground,  as  in  the  latter  case.  It  is  most 
important  to  bear  this  distinction  in  mind,  as  it  is  a  rule 
that  cannot  be  disregarded  with  impunity.  This  will 
soon  become  manifest  in  practice.  If  a  green  letter,  for 
instance,  be  placed  on  a  chocolate  or  any  dark  ground  in 
which  red  is  an  ingredient,  it  will  look  unnaturally 
crude,  if  it  be  not  relieved  by  a  gold  or  white  edging. 
Even  a  bright  red  letter  will  not,  under  the  same  condi- 
tions, be  free  from  crudeness,  although,  to  some  extent,  a 
friendly  color  to  the  ground.  As  a  still  stronger  illus- 
tration of  this  point,  paint  a  vermilion  letter  on  an 
emerald  green  surface,  and  carefully  notice  the  result. 
It  becomes  important,  then,  to  bear  in  mind,  that  col- 
ored letters  on  a  colored  ground  should  never  be  used 
unless  they  are  at  least  invested  with  a  white  or  gold 


148        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


edging ;  and  if  a  gold  thickness  can  be  added,  the  effect 
will  be  heightened.  A  black  cast-shade  will  throw  the 
letters  out,  and  help  to  give  them  a  raised  appearance. 
In  some  cases  a  colored  thickness  maybe  rendered  effec- 
tive on  a  dark  ground,  so  long  as  the  indispensable  gold 
or  white  line  be  not  neglected ;  but  it  ought  never  to  be  al- 
lowed to  impinge  upon  the  color  of  the  letter  itself,  unless 
that  color  be  in  imitation  of,  and  a  substitute  for,  gold,  in 
which  case  it  ought  not  really  to  be  regarded  as  a  color 
at  all,  but  as  the  thing  for  which  it  is  substituted.  This 
important  principle  of  separating  colors  by  means  of  a 
white,  black,  or  gold  line  has  been  recognized  for  cen- 
turies. Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  our  noble  Gothic 
cathedrals  were  profusely  decorated  with  coloi-,  but  al- 
ways upon  scientific  principles,  and  that  under  notice 
was  by  no  means  forgotten.  In  the  parti-coloring  which 
Mr.  Owen  Jones  adopted  in  the  interior  decoration  of 
the  Great  Exhibition  of  3  851,  it  was  carefully  regarded. 
The  primary  colors  were  so  arranged  as  to  neutralize 
each  other ;  and  in  order  to  avoid  any  harsh  antago- 
nism from  their  contact,  or  any  undesired  complemen- 
tary secondaries  arising  from  their  immediate  proximity, 
a  line  of  white  was  interposed  between  them,  which  had 
the  effect  of  softening  and  giving  them  their  true  value. 

Writing  on  a  pure  vermilion  ground  seldom  has  a 
good  effect,  the  brightness  of  the  ground  neutralizing  the 
work  introduced  in  the  lettering ;  and  more  than  this,  the 
letters  cannot  be  made  of  an  attractive  character.  As  a 
rule,  bright  grounds  are  a  mistake.  Many  persons  ima- 
gine that  a  ground  of  some  glaring  color  will  carry 
writing  of  a  showy  description  ;  but  it  is  not  so.  Writ- 
ing is  much  more  prominent  ou  a  ground  of  some  sub- 
dued color — a  secondary  or  a  tertiary — than  upon  a  posi- 
tive color,  unmixed  with  white,  however  brilliant  it  may 
be.  In  the  former  case  the  lettering  is  brought  forward, 
and  in  the  latter  the  ground  is  the  attraction,  to  the 
disadvantage  of  the  writing.    Advertisers  are  beginuing 


HINTS  ON  COLORING. 


149 


to  understand  this  fact.  A  few  years  ago,  it  was  con- 
sidered that,  as  l)lack  and  white  form  a  perfect  contrast 
to  each  other,  black  letters  on  a  white  ground,  or  vice 
versa,  were  the  most  attractive  that  could  be  adopted  ; 
and  that,  therefore,  this  was  the  most  suitable  style  in 
which  to  make  their  announcements.  Latterly  this  fal- 
lacy has  been  exploded.  The  Daily  Telegraph  paved 
the  way  for  a  change,  by  having  its  large  advertising 
boards  painted  a  dark  blue,  and  written  with  white  let- 
ters, by  which  "the  largest  circulation  in  the  world'' 
could  not  fail  to  attract  the  public  gaze.  Other  adver- 
tisers soon  followed  the  wise  example  of  the  Telegraphy 
and  blue  and  white  are  now  predominant,  simply  be- 
cause of  the  prominence  which  the  combination  presents. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  remark  in  reference  to  this,  that 
it  is  of  importance  to  have  a  pure  white  for  the  writing, 
as  the  effect  is  injured  if  the  white  be  tinged  with  any 
color.  A  black  cast-shade  will  add  strength  to  the  let- 
ters. 

On  a  bronze-green  ground  a  gold  letter  brought  up 
with  a  vermilion  thickness  has  a  rich  and  neat  appear- 
ance. An  emerald  thickness  also  looks  well,  but  it  is 
less  showy  than  the  former.    Blue  is  to  be  avoided. 

On  a  stone-color  or  white  ground,  the  letters  may  be 
written  in  any  color,  except  yellow ;  but  the  shading 
requires  some  judgment.  If  the  writing  be  black,  no 
colored  thickness  should  be  used.  A  simple  shadow  of 
the  ground  color,  but  deeper,  is  all  that  is  wanted. 
Some  writers  place  a  cast  shadow  of  a  positive  red,  green, 
or  blue,  to  a  black  letter ;  but  this  is  the  worst  possible 
taste,  and  being  contrary  to  nature,  should  be  carefully 
avoided.  If  a  sliadow  be  projected  at  all,  it  must  be 
sombre  in  tone.  Thicknesses  may  be  of  the  most  glar- 
ing or  brilliant  colors,  but  a  shadow  is  a  simple  trans- 
parency or  glaze  thrown  upon  the  ground  color,  render- 
ing it  darker  where  it  falls.  And  not  only  is  a  shadow 
of  color  against  nature,  but  it  is  extremely  disagreeable, 
13* 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


and  is  always  striking  by  its  commonness.  Such  a  com- 
bination is  fit  only  for  the  display  boards  of  itinerant 
theatres  and  similar  exhibitions,  where  a  change  of  per- 
formance nearly  every  night  renders  it  important  to 
managers  that  their  painted  announcements  should  be 
made  in  the  most  glaring  colors ;  and,  naturally,  this  is 
done  by  the  readiest  means  practicable,  by  Mr.  Mer- 
riman''  or  some  other  '^artist''  in  the  establishment. 
Marine-store  dealers  are,  perhaps,  the  next  greatest  of- 
fenders in  this  matter,  for  their  notions  of  display  also 
are  generally  of  the  crudest  kind.  It  is,  however,  for 
the  practised  sign-writer  to  protest  against  such  violation 
of  good  taste,  and  never,  on  any  account,  to  execute  work 
that  will  not  bear  ordinary,  to  say  nothing  of  critical 
examination. 

A  black  letter  on  a  stone-color  ground  may  be  relieved 
by  a  white  thickness  for  the  side,  and  a  stone  color,  darker 
than  the  ground,  for  the  under  or  dark  thickness.  This 
is  very  simple  and  effective,  and,  if  nicely  executed, 
throws  the  letters  out  well.  Another  and  similar  style 
of  finishing  a  black  letter,  is  to  make  the  thickness  on 
which  the  light  falls  a  perfect  white,  to  leave  the  ground 
for  the  shaded  or  under  part  of  the  thickness,  and  then 
to  put  a  cast-shade  on  the  opposite  side,  bringing  it  below 
the  ground  left  for  the  dark  thickness.  Of  conrse,  this 
cast-shade  must  be  of  the  same  color  as  the  ground,  but 
of  a  darker  shade.  A  mixture  of  burnt  umber,  yellow 
ochre,  and  white  is  generally  used  as  a  cast-shade  on  a 
stone-color  ground. 

There  are  different  methods  of  })rocedure  in  regard  to 
colored  writing,  some  writers  ])referring  one  plan  and 
some  another.  Blue  letters,  for  instance,  brought  up 
with  a  gilt  thickness  on  a  light  i^round,  may  be  pro- 
duced in  two  different  ways.  That  most  generally 
adopted  is  to  do  the  outline  and  gilt  thickness  first  of  all, 
and  then  to  fill  up  the  body  of  the  letters  with  the  blue, 
or  any  other  color  that  niay  be  required.    The  ad  van- 


HINTS  ON  COLORING. 


151 


tage  of  this  method  is,  that  the  work  can  be  completed 
without  the  necessity  of  waiting  till  the  colors  are  dry. 
If  the  body  of  the  letters  be  first  written  in  color,  the 
paint  must  be  allowed  to  dry  before  the  gold  leaf  can  be 
applied,  and  in  addition  to  the  inconvenience  of  delay, 
Jiere  is  the  danger  that  fragments  of  the  gilt  will  ad- 
here to  the  letters.  By  putting  on  the  gilt  first,  both 
these  drawbacks  will  be  avoided.  The  gilt  edging  or 
line  round  the  letters  should  be  neatly  executed,  and  for 
this  purpose  a  sable  pencil  will  be  found  indispensable. 
Should  the  under  part  of  the  thickness  not  be  gilded, 
but  brought  up  in  color  in  imitation  of  gold  leaf  in 
shade,  this  will  make  no  difference  to  the  gilt  edge  which 
impinges  upon  the  shaded  thickness.  That  must,  of 
course,  be  carried  equally  round  the  whole  of  the  letters. 
In  order  to  separate  the  edging  from  the  light  thickness, 
or  that  which  represents  the  side  of  the  letters  on  which 
the  light  falls,  a  fine  dark  line  should  mark  the  distinc- 
tion. This  line  ought  to  be  drawn  very  carefully  on  the 
gilt,  because  if  it  have  a  tremulous  or  jagged  aspect  it 
will  mar  the  effect  of  the  writing,  as  the  gold  will  serve 
to  show  up  the  imperfection.  The  under  or  shaded 
thickness  is  sometimes  gilded  and  washed  over  with  a 
transparent  glaze  of  burnt  sienna  and  Vandyke  brown, 
graduated  or  softened  off  from  dark  to  light  by  means 
of  a  moderate-sized  sable  pencil.  If  this  part  of  the  let- 
ters be  painted,  instead  of  gilded,  the  colors  used  are  yel- 
low ochre,  burnt  sienna,  and  Vandyke  brown.  To  add 
to  the  effect  of  this  style  of  writing  on  a  white  or  any 
light  ground,  a  black  shadow  should  appear  on  the  side 
opposite  to  that  of  the  thickness,  and  at  least  two  other 
shade  tints  should  be  made  beyond  the  black.  It  is 
customary  to  complete  the  faintest  shadow  first,  then  the 
one  a  little  stronger,  and  finally  to  add  the  black  close 
to  the  body  of  the  writing  and  under  the  bottom  of  the 
shaded  thickness. 

When  a  light  thickness  is  added,  say  to  gilt  letters, 


1*52        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


on  a  dark  ground,  the  writer  will  find  it  advantageous 
to  paint  the  whole  of  the  thickness  in  white  first,  and 
when  this  is  dry,  to  put  on  the  required  color,  and  soften 
with  two  or  three  sable  pencils.  This  softening  or  blend- 
ing is  not  done  with  the  ordinary  quick  drying  colors 
generally  used  for  writing,  but  the  colors  are  thinned 
with  boiled  oil  and  turpentine,  and  a  small  piece  of  com- 
mon dryers  is  added  instead  of  varnish  or  gold-size. 
The  most  beautifully  softened  thicknesses  are  always 
executed  with  tardy  drying  colors,  and  two  or  three  pen- 
cils are  used,  according  to  the  size  of  the  writing — one 
for  the  highest  light,  another  for  the  middle  tint,  and  a 
third  for  the  darkest  parts.  If  quick  drying  diluents  are 
employed,  the  difficulty  is  that  the  colors  set  before  the 
blending  can  be  properly  executed,  and,  as  a  necessary 
consequence,  the  work  presents  a  streaky  appearance. 
In  some  cases  it  is  impra(!ticable  to  use  colors  thinned 
with  boiled  oil ;  and  when  this  happens  the  best  must 
be  done  with  the  materials  ordinarily  employed.  In 
either  instance  there  should  be  at  least  three  different 
tints  on  the  palette,  and  each  should  be  kept  separate,  so 
that  there  may  be  no  variation  in  the  strength  of  the 
tints  from  one  end  of  the  line  of  letterings  to  the  other. 
The  shadow  is  always  represented  after  the  thickness  has 
been  finished.  If  the  body  of  the  letters  be  white  or  a 
light  color,  it  will  be  necessary  to  paint  them  over  two 
or  three  times;  but  the  last  layer  need  not  be  added  till 
the  thickness  and  shadow  are  completed. 

Some  sign-writers  have  a  partiality  for  an  intense  pur- 
ple, and  use  it  indiscriminately  in  any  arrangement. 
When  seen  in  the  day  time,  puri)le  has  pleasing  and 
agreeable  qualities,  being  somewhat  cool  and  retiring. 
But  in  artificial  light  its  effect  is  altogether  changed. 
The  reason  is  obvious.  It  is  well  known  that  all  artifi 
cial  lights  in  common  use  partake  of  a  warm  yellow  color, 
which  is  diffused  on  all  surrounding  objects.  Yellow, 
which  is  the  natural  contrast  to  purple,  becoming  thus 


HINTS  ON  COLORING. 


153 


as  il  were  incorporated  with  the  purple,  neutralizes  and 
destroys  its  purity.  The  same  obtains  with  regard  to 
pure  blue.  Ultramarine  has  a  grey  effect  in  artificial 
light,  arising  from  the  same  cause.  The  reverse  holds 
good  in  respect  to  colors  which  are  allied  to  red,  the 
artificial  light  rather  improving  their  brilliancy  than 
otherwise.  These  matters  ought  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  deciding  upon  colors  to  be  used  fi[)r  particu- 
lar arrangements,  so  that  the  effect  may  be  equallly  good 
under  any  light. 

Though  gold  leaf  is  almost  invariably  applied  indis- 
criminately upon  any  ground  color,  yet  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  this  is  neither  a  commendable  nor  a  judi- 
cious course.  There  are  some  colors  on  which  gold  leaf 
never  appears  to  advantage,  whilst  on  others  it  soon  be- 
comes deteriorated,  owing  to  the  chemical  properties  of 
the  colors  eventually  "sweating''  through'  the  metallic 
leaf.  This  particularly  applies  to  the  greens,  and  espe- 
cially to  bronze  green,  on  which  gold  leaf  tarnishes  or 
fades  sooner  than  it  does  upon  any  other  color.  As  a  rule, 
gold  leaf  does  not  stand  out  well  on  any  kind  of  graining, 
though  sometimes  it  may  be  very  effectively  used  upon 
a  marbled  surface.  Of  course,  to  produce  a  satisfactory 
piece  of  work  on  these  gi'ounds,  which  are  of  a  mottled 
or  mixed  character,  a  good  deal  of  judgment  and  ability 
is  required,  or  the  operator  will  find  that  his  labors  have 
a  very  different  result  from  what  he  intended.  The 
marbled  or  grained  ground  being  of  different  shades  and 
degrees  of  colors,  the  writing  should  partake  of  a  color 
that  most  contrasts  with  the  general  tone  of  the  ground  ; 
for,  if  a  similar  color  be  used,  the  writing  will  in  some 
places  be  so  nearly  the  color  of  the  ground,  that  it  will 
be  almost  indistinct,  and  any  attempt  to  alter  this  by 
the  addition  of  a  thickness  and  shadow  will,  to  a  certain 
extent,  be  unsuccessful.  On  a  marbled  or  grained  ground, 
contrast  must  be  aimed  at  in  the  writing,  if  it  be  required 
to  stand  out  in  any  sort  of  relief.    Take,  for  instance,  a 


154        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


ground  of  serpentine  marble — a  rather  bright  green, — it 
woukl  be  folly  to  put  a  blue  or  a  yellow  letter  upon  this, 
as  the  ground  itself  is  a  combination  of  these  two  colors, 
and  if  either  of  them  were  used,  the  effect,  so  far  from 
being  pleasing,  in  consequence  of  its  harmoniousness, 
would  be  most  disagreeably  insipid.  Even  for  the  thick- 
ness any  one  of  the  colors  used  in  combination  for  the 
ground  work  ought  not  to  be  employed,  if  a  really  bold 
letter  be  the  object  sought  to  be  achieved  by  the  writer. 
The  best  and  only  suitable  color  for  writing  upon  green 
marbling  will  be  found  to  be  a  carnation,  made  by  mixing 
together  vermilion  and  white  lead.  This  is  a  very  deli- 
cate, and,  withal,  rich  color  in  which  to  form  the  letters, 
and  a  neat  and  elegant  finish  can  be  given  to  the  writing 
by  the  introduction  of  a  gilt  line  round  the  edges  of  the 
letters,  and  a  gilt  or  yellow  thickness,  with  black  shade. 
The  effect  of  this  arrangement  will  be  far  better  than  can 
be  secured  by  any  other  mode  of  working.  This  is  pre- 
ferable even  to  forming  the  letters  in  gold,  and  to  intro- 
ducing a  carnation  thickness,  which  is  the  next  best  way 
of  producing  an  agreeable  piece  of  work  on  a  mixed  sur- 
face of  greens,  interspersed  with  multitudinous  varieties 
of  tone,  from  highest  light  to  deepest  shade  tint. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  writing  executed  on 
an  imitation  of  black-and-gold  marble,  and  yet  what  can 
look  worse?  The  black  ground  effectually  prevents  the 
introduction  of  a  shadow — for  a  shadow  of  less  depth 
than  the  ground  is  no  shadow  at  all, — and  the  yellow 
veins  of  the  marble  sadly  mar  the  effect  of  any  light 
colors,  or  even  of  gold  leaf  itself.  The  only  really  mode- 
rately-successful way  of  treating  writing  on  this  surface 
is  by  adopting  the  plan  already  recommended,  of  writing 
the  letters  in  some  color,  and  shading  up  with  gold  leaf. 
An  emerald  green  letter  is,  perhaps,  as  good  as  any,  and 
should  be  shaded  with — or,  rather,  its  thickness  should 
be — a  carnation  for  the  light  side,  and  a  pure  vermilion 
and  a  purple  brown  for  the  underneath  or  shaded  thick- 


HINTS  ON  COLORING. 


155 


ness.  But,  of  course,  the  emerald  green  and  the  carna- 
tion will  not  suffice  of  themselves.  A  gold  edge  should 
be  given  to  the  letters,  to  take  away  the  tawdry  effect 
which  the  juxtaposition  of  two  such  bright  colors  as 
emerald  green  and  carnation  would  present  per  se.  The 
veining  of  the  black-and-gold  marble  is  sometimes  put 
in  with  gold  leaf  instead  of  color;  and,  when  such  is  the 
case,  the  effect  of  any  lettering  upon  it,  however  care- 
fully it  may  be  executed,  never  looks  well.  Indeed,  it 
is  the  worst  taste  imaginable  to  put  writing  at  all  upon 
such  a  ground.  And  yet  it  is  occasionally  done.  The 
only  kind  of  letter  that  has  any  pretence  to  being  even 
passable  on  a  ground  of  black-and-gold  is  a  purely  wliite 
one.  But  this  cannot  be  relieved  with  any  degree  of 
satisfaction  b)^  any  color  that  would  be  appropriate  on  a 
ground  of  one  color  only.  The  brightness  of  the  gold 
and  the  depth  of  the  black  ntterly  destroy  the  lettering; 
and  the  writer  who  has  any  consideration  for  his  reputa- 
tion should  not  undertake  to  work  upon  a  ground  whose 
tendency  is  to  kill  whatever  is  brought  in  contact  with  it. 

There  is  another  kind  of  ground — a  sienna  marble — 
which  greatly  detracts  from  any  writing  which  may  be 
painted  upon  it.  No  really  good  effect  can  be  produced 
upon  this  ground,  which,  being  of  a  yellow  color,  pre- 
vents gold  leaf  itself  from  showing  prominently  upon  it. 

In  the  case  of  shop  fronts  painted  in  imitation  of  mar- 
ble, it  is  always  better  to  paint  the  facia,  or  any  place 
where  the  lettering  is  to  be  placed,  in  a  uniform  color. 
A  column  or  pilaster,  for  instance,  may  be  marbled  from 
top  to  bottom  ;  but  if  writing  be  required  upon  the  mar- 
bling, it  would  in  all  cases  be  more  effective  to  paint  a 
place  in  the  form  of  a  panel  in  some  set  color,  and  to 
write  upon  that.  By  shading  the  edges  of  the  panel, 
it  may  be  made  to  appear  as  if  it  were  actually  affixed 
to  the  marble.  Besides  giving  the  writer  much  fuller 
scope,  this  will  be  the  means  of  giving  variety  to  the 
work,  and  rendering  it  more  ornamental  than  any  writ- 
ing  could  be  made  upon  the  marbling  itself. 


156         SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


Writing  executed  upon  imitations  of  wood  is  less  ob- 
jectionable than  on  marbling.  Wood  graining  is  more 
uniform  in  color,  the  gradations  not  being  so  abrupt  as 
they  are  in  marble.  On  any  kind  of  dark  wood,  letters 
may  be  very  elfectively  painted,  and  a  richness  may  be 
made  to  result;  but  even  writing  on  graining  of  this 
kind  cannot  be  so  successfully  managed  as  it  can  on  a 
surface  of  uniform  color.  Mahogany  or  walnut  grounds, 
however,  are  the  least  objectionable,  because,  being  some- 
wliat  dark  in  tone,  any  kind  of  light  letter  will  stand 
out  boldly,  and  by  a  judicious  combination  of  color  and 
gold  leaf  something  attractive  may  be  j)r()duced. 

Light  oak  graining  forms  a  very  objectionable  ground 
for  the  writer  to  work  upon,  because,  being  of  a  middle 
tone,  there  is  really  no  scope  for  the  exercise  of  the 
writer's  ingenuity.  It  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty to  work  at  all  satisfactorily  upon  a  wainscot  ground. 
Even  gold  leaf  is  almost  lost  upon  it.  A  pure  white  is 
j)erhaps  the  best  for  the  letter,  and,  if  no  thickness  is  re- 
quired, a  couple  of  cast-shades — the  outer  one  transpa- 
rent, and  that  close  to  the  letters,  a  black — should  be 
added.  This  is  cheap  and  effective.  The  introduction 
of  various  colors  upon  an  oak  ground,  many  of  which 
are  invisible  at  a  few  paces  distant,  is  little  better  then 
labor  in  vain.  The  writer's  aim  should  be  to  give  effect 
wifb  as  little  trouble  as  possible,  for  his  own  sake,  and 
for  that  of  his  employer. 


CHAPTER  X. 


GOLD  LEAF  AND  GILDING. 

SiGN-WEiTiNG  is  an  art  which  depends  a  great  deal 
upon  a  judicious  employment  of  gold  leaf,  the  nature  of 
which,  together  with  the  various  methods  of  using  it, 
will  now  be  described. 

Gold  leaf  is  sold  at  most  color  shops  and  artists'  re- 
positories in  books  containing  twenty-five  leaves  of  gold, 
each  leaf  being  carefully  placed  between  the  paper  con- 
stituting the  book,  which  is  first  rubbed  over  with  red 
bole  to  prevent  the  gold  from  adhering.  The  size  of 
the  leaves  is  about  3f  inches  square,  and  the  cost  of  a 
book  is  37J  cents  gold.  Gilders  estimate  their  work 
by  the  number  of"  hundreds'^  it  will  take,  and  not  by 
the  number  of  books.  If,  for  instance,  it  is  reckoned 
that  the  work  will  require  100  leaves,  it  is  not  custom- 
ary to  say  that  it  will  require  "  four  books,"  but  "  a 
hundred,"  meaning,  of  course,  a  hundred  leaves. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  bestowed  upon  the  selection 
of  gold  leaf,  as  the  dearness  of  gold  offers  a  great  induce- 
ment for  the  employment  of  metals  of  less  value  in  its 
manufacture.  Pure  gold  being  too  ductile  to  be  worked 
between  the  gold-beater's  skin,  a  certain  amount  of  alloy 
is  always  added,  varying  from  three  to  twelve  grains  in 
the  ounce.  Generally,  there  is  about  six  grains  to  the 
ounce,  or  one-eightieth  part.  The  alloy  consists  of  sil- 
ver or  copper  and  sometimes  both,  and  this  accounts  to 
some  extent  for  the  difference  in  the  color  of  the  gold 
14  157 


158        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


leaf.  If  more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  alloy  be  em- 
ployed, the  durability  of  the  metal,  as  used  for  decora- 
tive purposes,  is  destroyed.  It  sometimes  happens,  too, 
that  the  gold  leaf  is  kept  in  a  damp  place,  or  has  in 
some  way  been  exposed  to  a  damp  or  uncongenial  at- 
mosphere. In  this  case  it  will  be  found  to  adhere 
partly  to  the  paper  leaves  of  the  book,  and  it  will  be 
impossible  to  remove  it  without  tearing  it  in  pieces, 
when  it  is  almost,  if  not  entirely  worthless.  And  not 
only  is  the  gold  leaf  torn  by  this  partial  adhesion  to  the 
paper,  but  the  edges  become  so  tarnished  by  the  damp 
to  which  they  have  been  subjected,  that  they  will  com- 
pletely sully,  and  perhaps  altogether  spoil,  any  work  to 
which  they  may  be  applied.  Gold  leaf  should  fall  free- 
ly from  the  book  on  the  leaves  being  opened,  without 
any  particle  sticking  to  the  paper.  Some  gilders  place 
the  books  before  the  fire  for  an  hour  or  so  previous  to 
use,  in  order  to  dry  the  gold  leaf  and  render  it  more 
manageable,  and  this  is  a  practice  which  the  sign-writer 
may  advantageously  adopt. 

Gold  leaf  may  be  obtained  of  different  colors.  The 
palest,  generally  known  as  "  pure  virgin,"  is  but  a  few 
shades  removed  from  white,  approximating  to  silver; 
whilst  the  ^'  deep,"  as  it  is  technically  called,  approaches 
a  copper  color,  being  alloyed  with  a  large  admixture  of 
that  metal.  There  is,  then  a  "  medium"  or  "yellow" 
color,  and,  for  all  practical  purposes,  this  is  most  gene- 
rally useful,  inasmuch  as  it  is  not  so  apt  to  become 
stained  by  the  varnish  which,  in  sign-writing,  is  nearly 
always  coated  over  gilt  work.  If  the  medium  color  be 
left  unvarnished,  it  is  more  durable  than  either  of  the 
other  colors.  It  possesses  sufficient  depth  to  prevent  it 
from  appearing  silvery,  as  "  pure  virgin "  does  when 
left  unvarnished,  and  it  has  not  that  coj)pcry  hue  which 
distinguishes  the  "deep"  gold.  Moreover,  the  "me- 
dium" is  not  so  liable  as  the  other  colors  to  be  acted 
upon  by  the  atmosphere,  when  us^d  on  outside  work. 


GOLD  LEAF  AND  GILDING. 


159 


Til  exposed  situations  out-of-doors,  pale  gold  leaf  should 
always  be  varnished,  or  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  it 
will  become  tarnished.  Deep  gold  leaf  also  will  soon 
lose  its  brilliancy  if  exposed  to  the  weather,  unless  a 
coat  of  clear  varnish  be  added.  The  common  dark  var- 
nishes should  in  all  cases  be  avoided,  because  their  ten- 
dency is  to  become  darker,  and  they  will  destroy  that 
bright  metallic  appearance  which  is  characteristic  of  gold 
leaf 

Owing  to  the  extreme  ductility  and  malleability  of 
gold,  the  leaves  are  hammered  out  by  the  gold-beater  to 
a  surprising  degree  of  thinness,  rendering  its  use  a  mat- 
ter of  some  difficulty.  The  ordinary  gold  leaf  is  usually 
estimated  at  the  282,000th  of  an  inch  in  thickness ;  but 
the  modern  French  manufacture  does  not  exceed  the 
480,000th  of  an  inch.  An  ounce  of  gold  may  be  beaten 
into  1,600  leaves,  each  three  inches  square,  in  which 
state  it  covers  more  than  159,052  times  its  former  sur- 
face. In  ancient  times,  when  gold  leaf  was  extensively 
used  in  all  kinds  of  decorations,  the  thickness  of  the 
leaf  was  much  greater  than  it  is  at  the  present  period. 
From  a  description  given  by  Pliny  of  Roman  gilding,  it 
appears  that  the  gold-beaters  of  that  period  could  not 
get  more  than  750  leaves  "  four  fingers  square,'^  out  of 
an  ounce  of  gold,  and,  therefore,  the  thickness  must 
have  been  about  double  that  of  the  modern  manufac- 
ture. 

Owing  to  the  great  expense  of  gilding,  inconsequence 
of  the  thickness  of  the  leaf,  various  substitutes  for  gold 
were  formerly  used.  About  the  end  of  the  16th  century 
the  Italians  invented  a  method  of  overlaying  with  silver 
leaf,  or  some  cheaper  white  metal,  those  parts  which 
they  wished  should  have  the  appearance  of  gold,  and 
then,  by  applying  a  yellow  transparent  varnish,  the 
white  metal  was  made  to  assume  the  required  color,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  present  a  metallic  splendor.  Ander- 
son, in  his  "  Origin  of  Commerce,"  says  that  this  prac- 


160         SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


tice  was  introduced  into  England  by  one  Evelyn  in 
1633.  On  the  better  kinds  of  work,  however,  it  was  no 
uncommon  thing  for  the  best  metal  to  be  employed,  and 
even  for  two  thicknesses  of  the  leaf  to  be  placed  on  the 
same  parts,  in  order  to  bring  out  the  full  lustre  of  the 
gold  and  to  insure  its  greater  durability.  The  work 
executed  in  this  way  was  called  ^'  double  gilt,"  a  term 
which  is  still  freely  used,  although  it  is  seldom  that  a 
louble  layer  of  gold  leaf  is  to  be  found  in  any  modern 
work,  except  in  the  case  of  flat  surfaces  in  water  gilt, 
where  it  is  almost  a  matter  of  necessity.  In  the  Twelfth 
Night  Fabian  is  made  to  say  : 

The  double  gilt  of  this  opportunitie  you  let  time  wash  oflf, — 

showing  the  sense  of  superiority  in  which  the  practice 
of  double  gilding  was  regarded  by  Shakespeare,  and,  it 
may  be  assumed,  by  the  superior  minds  generally  in  his 
day.  And  even  within  the  present  century  it  was  the 
custom  of  some  sign-writers  to  double-gikl  their  letters, 
with  the  view  of  giving  them  additional  brilliancy  and 
permanence.  Now,  however,  so  far  as  the  sign-writer  is 
concerned,  this  plan  is  never  resorted  to  (except  in  the 
case  of  gilding  on  glass,  which  is  a  totally  different 
branch  of  the  art  to  that  upon  which  we  are  now  treat- 
ing), the  advantages  derivable  from  it  being  dispropor- 
tionate to  the  cost  of  the  metal  and  the  extra  trouble  of 
putting  it  on.  At  the  same  time,  we  believe  that  double 
gilt  is  still  occasionally  applied  to  the  best  work  of  the 
picture  frame  and  cabinet  gilder. 

Before  passing  on  to  notice  the  methods  of  gilding 
generally  adopted  by  sign-writers,  it  may  here  be  pointed 
out  that  an  inferior  kind  of  metal,  in  imitation  of  gold 
leaf,  is  procurable  at  a  lower  price.  This,  however, 
is  an  article  which  is  hardly  worth  attention.  It 
can  only  be  adopted  for  temporary  announcements,  as 
its  properties  are  evanescent,  and  it  ought  not  on  any 
account  to  be  used  for  work  subjected  to  close  inspec- 


GOLD  LEAF  AND  GILDING. 


161 


tion,  because  it  always  presents  a  tawdry  "  Cheap  Jack'' 
appearance,  however  dexterously  it  may  be  laid  on.  In- 
deed, it  never  approaches  pure  gold  leaf  in  its  effect. 
The  difference  between  the  two  is  just  that  between  a 
good  sovereign  and  a  counterfeit  one  ;  and  can  be  de- 
tected by  any  experienced  person.  Like  the  common 
tinsel,  known  as  Dutch  metal,''  w^hich  can  be  bought 
at  a  still  lower  rate,  the  inferior  quality  of  gold 
leaf  is  chiefly  used  for  theatrical  scenery,  where  a  tem- 
porary brilliancy  is  required  and  durability  is  not  an 
object.  Dutch  metal  is  extensively  used  by  shopkeepers 
for  "  gilding  "  laurel  and  other  leaves,  holly-berries,  and 
so  forth,  for  Christmas  displays,  and  formerly  designs  in 
ginger-bread  covered  with  this  article  were  quite  an 
"  institution  "  at  all  kinds  of  fairs,  to  the  no  small  amaze- 
ment of  rustics  and  young  children.  For  this  and  kin- 
dred purposes,  Dutch  metal  is  quite  as  effective  as  the 
best  gold  leaf,  and  owing  to  its  greater  thickness  it  is 
much  less  difficult  to  handle.  Indeed,  any  one  unaccus- 
tomed to  the  use  of  gold  leaf  could  not  hope  to  succeed 
in  performing  with  it  the  apparently  easy  task  of  gild- 
ing even  ginger-bread.  The  metal  is  beat  out  to  such  a 
degree  of  tenuity  that  it  requires  a  steady  and  skilful 
hand  to  manage  it  satisfactorily,  and  this  can  only  be 
acquired  as  the  result  of  repeated  trials  and  many  vexa- 
tious failures.  Dutch  metal,  on  the  contrary,  is  so  thick 
as  to  be  manageable  (in  so  far  as  it  is  capable  of  man- 
agement) by  any  person,  however  inexperienced. 

Were  it  not  for  an  extreme  thinness  of  gold  leaf,  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  prevent  the  multitudinous  join- 
ings from  showing.  If  executed  by  an  unskilled  work- 
man, the  joinings  of  the  gold  are  sometimes  perceptible, 
and  numerous  fractures  caused  by  breaking,  the  gold 
leaf,  technically  called  spider  legs,"  are  here  and  there 
apparent.  Bu^  if  the  gilding  be  skilfully  and  properly 
performed,  no  matter  how  numerous  the  pieces  of  gold 
leaf  employed,  it  will  appear  as  if  it  were  done  by  a  single 
14* 


162        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


leaf,  instead  of  an  aggregation  of  small  pieces,  often  of 
irregular  sizes  and  various  shapes. 

For  the  purposes  of  gilding,  the  tools  necessary  are  a 
cushion,  cutting  knife,  and  a  "  tip,^'  each  of  which  calls 
for  a  few  words  of  explanation. 

A  gilder's  cushion  is  a  flat  piece  of  wood,  measuring 
about  8  inches  by  5,  covered  first  with  baize  and  then 
with  soft  wash  leather,  which  is  drawn  tightly  over  it. 
An  edge  or  skirting  of  about  3  inches  in  height  protects 
three  of  the  sides,  and  is  intended  to  keep  the  gold 
leaves  from  flying  off  the  cushion,  for  the  merest  draught 
is  enough  to  scatter  them  in  all  directions.  A  loop  is 
placed  under  the  cushion  for  the  insertion  of  the  thumb 
of  the  left  hand  to  hold  it  by  whilst  in  use,  the  loop 
answering  the  same  purpose  as  the  thumb-hole  of  a 
palette;  and  sometimes  there  is  a  second  loop  for  the 
cutting  knife.  This  knife  is  used  for  cutting  the  gold 
leaf  upon  the  cushion.  It  has  a  long  and  flexible  blade, 
with  a  perfectly  straiglit  and  smooth  edge,  and  must  be 
kept  very  clean,  or,  instead  of  cutting  the  gold,  it  will 
merely  tear  it  and  crumple  it  up,  rendering  its  use  a 
matter  of  difficulty.  A  tip"  is  a  sort  of  flat  brush, 
made  of  a  thin  layer  of  some  soft  hair,  and  held  together 
between  two  pieces  of  pasteboard.  This  brush  can  be 
obtained  of  different  widths,  and  of  various  lengths  of  hair. 
It  is  used  for  removing  the  gold  leaf  from  the  cushion  to 
the  part  to  be  gilded.  The  tip  should  be  drawn  lightly 
across  the  face  or  hair,  and  then  placed  upon  the  gold, 
when  the  moisture  on  the  brush,  derived  from  the  face, 
slight  though  it  be,  will  cause  the  gold  to  adhere  to  it  suf- 
ficiently to  enable  the  workman  to  lift  it  up  and  deposit 
it  on  the  surface  prepared  for  its  reception.  If  a  leaf  of 
gold  has  been  cut  in  a  dozen  pieces  by  the  cutting  knife, 
each  piece  may  be  placed  in  its  proper  position  by  means 
of  the  tip. 

Some  sign-writers  adopt  this  method,  which  is  that 
most  commonly  practised  by  experienced  gilders,  for 


GOLD  LEAF  AND  GILDING. 


1G3 


outside  work.  They  shake  out  about  a  dozen  leaves  of 
gold  upon  the  cushion,  puif  them  on  one  side  against  the 
parchment  screen,  then  lift  one  leaf  with  the  cutting 
knife  to  the  middle  of  the  cushion,  and  when  it  has 
been  flattened  by  a  sh'ght  puft'*  of  the  breath,  it  is  cut 
to  the  required  dimensions,  and  lifted  and  placed  in  posi- 
tion with  the  tip.  Of  course,  piece  after  piece  is  placed 
on  the  parts  to  be  gilded,  in  the  same  way,  until  the 
whole  space  is  covered.  The  leaf  is  then  rubbed  over 
gently,  or  rather  pressed  against  the  gold  size,  with  a  pad 
of  cotton  wool,  by  which  means  the  superfluous  pieces  of 
gold  are  removed  and  the  jagged  edges  smoothed. 

Other  sign-writers,  again,  when  gilding  out-of-doors, 
prefer  to  take  the  gold  leaf  from  the  book  without  cut- 
ting it  at  all.  They  turn  back  the  paper  leaves,  and 
place  the  gold  leaf  direct  against  the  surface,  which  has 
been  prepared  for  it.  By  following  this  plan,  how- 
ever, a  great  portion  of  the  gold  leaf  is  w^asted,  and, 
as  it  seems,  without  any  corresponding  advantage.  The 
slightest  draught  or  current  of  air  renders  it  a  matter  of 
no  small  difficulty  to  proceed  in  the  manner  here  indica- 
ted, and,  indeed,  it  would  be  impossible  to  do  so  if  there 
were  the  least  wind,  unless  the  workman  were  carefully 
sheltered  from  it  by  some  kind  of  awning  or  clo  -o  cov- 
ering. The  same  applies  also  to  the  method  of  gilding 
out-of-doors  with  tip  and  cushion,  already  described.f 

There  is,  however,  another  method  of  gilding  which 


*  There  is  required  in  this  gentle  pufF  of  breath  a  something 
which  will  at  first  greatly  perplex  the  beginner.  We  can  only 
define  it  as  "  knack,"  to  be  acquired  by  experience.  When  per- 
formed by  a  skilled  workman,  it  is  apparently  the  simplest  thing 
in  the  world,  but  a  great  many  of  the  puffs  at  the  outset  will  re- 
sult in  disappointment  and  loss  of  the  leaves  of  gold.  There  is 
no  royal  road  to  the  acquisition  of  this  art,  which  is  apt  to 
deceive  the  uninitiated  by  its  apparent  simplicity  ;  but  the  begin- 
ner must  expect  to  pay  the  usual  forfeit  demanded  of  inexperience, 
before  he  becomes  a  proficient  gilder  from  the  cushion. 

f  Speaking  of  the  covering  under  which  gilders  in  exposed  situ- 


164         SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


has  only  of  late  years  become  known  to  and  adopted  by 
the  sign-writer,  and  it  possesses  so  many  advantages, 
and  is  so  easy  of  application,  that,  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses, it  is  the  most  preferable  for  the  sign-writer,  who 
is  almost  invarialtly  called  upon  to  gild  upon  a  flat  sur- 
face. If  it  were  not  so,  the  method  about  to  be  explain- 
ed would  be  valueless,  because  it  cannot  be  applied 
advantageously  to  carved  or  moulded  work. 

The  writer  should  procure  a  clean  sheet  of  silver  or 
tissue  paper,  of  not  too  great  a  body,  and  rub  it  over  on 
one  side  only  with  a  piece  of  white  wax.  A  piece  of 
wax  candle,  or  even  beeswax,  will  do  as  well  as  any- 
thing. This  should  be  held  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  of  the  right  liand,  and  rubbed  rather  briskly 
over  the  surface  of  the  tissue  paper,  which  should  be 
placed  upon  a  book  or  something  })erfectly  flat,  so  that 
the  wax  is  spread  evenly  throughout.  The  paper  which 
has  thus  been  rubbed  will,  when  held  si<leways  to  the 
light,  be  seen  to  have  a  glossy  surface,  and  will  possess 
a  certain  "  tackiness,"  or  sticky  quality,  scarcely  percep- 
tible to  the  touch,  but  sufficient  to  cause  the  gold  leaf  to 
adhere  to  it.  After  a  whole  sheet  of  paper  has  been 
waxed  as  described,  it  should  be  cut  into  squares  a  little 
larger  than  the  leaves  of  the  book  of  gold.  This  having 
been  done,  the  gold  leaf  book  should  be  carefully 
opened,  and  the  waxed  side  of  the  tissue  paper  gently 
pressed  upon  the  gold  with  the  hand.  On  removing  the 
paper  the  gold  leaf  will  be  found  attached  to  it.  Each 
leaf  of  gold  should  be  taken  out  in  the  same  way 
until  the   whole  book  is    emptied.    The  gold  leaf. 


ations  work,  it  may  be  remarked  that  many  persons  have  an  idea 
that  the  object  is  to  keep  their  ait  a  secret,  whereas,  in  rcaHty,  it 
is  a  matter  of  absolute  necessity.  That  this  notion  is  a  very  old 
one  is  evident  from  a  passage  that  occurs  in  The  Silent  Womaii, 
hy  Ben  Jonson,  to  this  effect: — "  Gilders  will  not  work,  but  en- 
closed. They  must  not  discover  how  little  serves,  with  tlie  helpe 
of  art,  to  adorne  a  great  deal." — Act  1.,  scene  I. 


GOLD  LEAF  AND  GILDING. 


165 


being  thus  secured  upon  the  tissue  paper,  is  ready  for 
use.  It  must  be  evident  tiiat  the  difficulty  experienced 
through  the  extraordinary  thinness  of  the  gold  is  by 
this  means  to  a  great  extent  overcome.  The  tissue  pa- 
per with  the  gold  attached  can  be  handled  by  any  per- 
son, however  inexperienced,  and  may  be  used  over  and 
over  again. 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  the  letters  to  be  gilded  have 
been  written  in  the  most  suitable  material,  and  that  they 
are  ready  to  receive  the  gold  leaf.  All  that  the  writer 
has  to  do  is  to  take  up  the  tissue  paper  with  the  left 
hand,  and  to  place  it  with  the  gilded  side  to  the  letters, 
and,  having  rubbed  the  back  lightly  with  the  right  hand, 
the  gold  will  come  off  the  paper  and  adhere  hrmly  to 
the  mordant  with  which  the  lettering  has  been  writ- 
ten. 

Besides  the  simplicity  of  this  method  of  gilding,  ano- 
ther great  advantage  it  possesses  is  the  small  amount 
of  waste  that  takes  place.  The  tissue  paper  being  semi- 
transparent,  the  gold  leaf  shows  through  it,  and  the  ope- 
rator can  see  where  any  portion  of  the  gold  adheres  to 
the  paper,  and  can  accordingly  place  it  on  such  portions 
of  the  work  as  it  will  best  fit,  without  an  undue  number 
of  joinings,  though  by  this  process,  if  the  gold  leaf  be 
good,  not  the  slightest  trace  of  any  joinings  is  discernible. 
It  will  readily  be  understood  that  every  particle  of  the 
gold  can  be  made  use  of. 

In  addition  to  these  advantages,  this  method  of  gild- 
ing possesses  other  recomtnendations  which  are  deserving 
of  mention.  In  the  first  place,  the  labor  of  affixing  the 
gold  leaf  to  the  tissue  paper,  and  subsequently  to  the 
lettering,  can  be  performed  by  an  apprentice,  or  any  one 
who  would  utterly  fail  if  called  upon  to  use  it  in  either 
of  the  ways  previously  described.  Then,  again,  as  already 
mtimated,  gilding  from  the  tip  or  cushion,  or  from  the 
book  without  cutting,  cannot  be  effected  out-of-doors  if 
there  happens  to  be  any  force  of  wind.    Indeed,  the 


166       SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


ordinary  draught  or  current  of  air  which  frequently 
passes  through  a  street  is  a  serious  hindrance  to  the  ope- 
rations of  the  gilder  by  either  of  these  two  processes, 
w^hich  even  now  may  be  called  the  common  processes ;  for 
the  plan  recommended,  simple  as  it  is,  has  not  long  been 
discovered,  and  some  of  the  old  school  of  workmen  still 
adopt  these  cumbrous  and  wasteful  methods  of  working. 

In  either  of  the  foregoing  methods  the  gold  leaf  should 
be  gently  dabbed  over  with  a  pad  of  cotton  wool,  which 
will  smooth  the  surface  of  the  gilt,  and  remove  all  super- 
fluous pieces  of  gold  leaf 

There  is  one  thing  preliminary  to  the  process  of  lay- 
ing on  the  gold  which  has  not  yet  been  noticed.  A 
newly-painted  surface  is,  of  course,  sticky,  or  what  is 
technically  called  "tacky;"  and  if  the  gold  leaf  were  to 
be  applied  to  such  a  surface,  it  would  adhere,  or  "  hang," 
as  it  is  called,  to  parts  of  the  ground  color  where  the 
mordant  had  not  touched,  and  where  the  gold  was  not 
required.  It  is  needful,  therefore,  before  the  writing  is 
even  marked  out,  that  the  newly-painted  surface  should 
be  "pounced" — that  is,  dabbed  over  lightly  with  dry 
whitening ;  but  care  should  be  taken  that  the  loose  par- 
ticles are  dusted  off  by  the  gentle  application  of  a  silk 
handkerchief.  If  the  ground  be  a  dark  one,  this  poun- 
cing (which  is  best  done  by  placing  the  whitening  in  a 
linen  bag  and  making  a  kind  of  pad  or  ball,  which 
should  be  dabbed  over  the  work)  will  so  far  lighten  it, 
that  the  writer  will  be  able  to  distinguish  any  lines  he 
may  make  with  the  sable  pencil  charged  with  size,  as 
the  size  w^ill  restore  the  ground  to  its  original  color. 
Bat,  if  the  ground  be  a  light  one,  the  pouncing  will  not 
have  this  effect,  and  hence  it  becomes  necessary  to  mix 
some  kind  of  color  with  the  size  to  enable  the  writer  to 
make  certain  that  he  has  thoroughly  covered  the  portion 
to  be  gilded.  The  whitening  is  removed  from  the  ground 
after  the  gold  leaf  is  applied,  by  means  of  a  damp  cha* 
mois  leather. 


GOLD  LEAF  AND  GILDING. 


167 


The  mordants  used  for  gilding  are  of  different  kinds. 
Picture  frame  gilders  generally  make  use  of  what  is  tech- 
nically called  gilders'  size,  made  of  fat  oil,  in  which  yel- 
low ochre  has  been  ground.  This  is,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, a  good  material  for  the  purpose  of  the  sign- 
writer,  but  it  is  too  thick  for  general  adoption  especially 
in  cold  weather,  when  it  is  unmanageable  with  the  sable 
pencil.  In  hot  weather,  however,  it  is  not  so  thick,  and 
may  often  be  used  with  advantage.  The  gold  leaf  must 
not  be  applied  to  this  mordant  for  at  least  twenty-four 
hours  after  its  application,  and  it  will  remain  tacky  for 
two  or  three  days.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  durable  of 
any  of  the  sizes  used  for  gilding.  When  the  letters  have 
to  be  written  and  finished  more  rapidly,  japanners'  gold 
size  is  generally  employed.  The  gold  leaf  may  be  laid 
on  this  vehicle  in  about  half-an-hour  after  the  letters 
have  been  written  with  it,  as  it  dries  very  rapidly. 
Owing  to  exigencies  of  time,  and  sometimes  of  the 
weather,  the  writer  is  frequently  compelled  to  prepare 
his  work  and  put  on  the  gold  leaf  a  few  minutes  after- 
wards. When  this  is  the  case,  gold  size  alone  is  used. 
But  if  an  interval  of  a  few  hours  be  no  object,  and  if  the 
work  cannot  be  left  for  completion  till  the  next  day,  it  is 
customary  to  add  oil  varnish  to  the  gold  size,  regulating 
the  quantity  according  to  the  time  at  disposal.  Linseed 
oil  should  not  be  mixed  with  gold  size  to  retard  its  dry- 
ing properties,  because  it  is  apt,  not  only  to  destroy  the 
adhesiveness  of  the  size,  but  to  ''sweat''  through  and 
ultimately  discolor  the  metallic  leaf.  A  few  drops  of 
boiled  oil  are  added  to  the  size  occasionally,  but,  as  a 
general  rule,  varnish  will  be  found  preferable  to  either 
of  the  oils  mentioned. 

Some  writers  prefer  varnish  alone  as  a  mordant  for 
gilding  when  the  work  can  be  left  for  a  day  before  the 
gold  leaf  is  applied,  and  the  gilding  effected  upon  this 
vehicle  is  as  brilliant  and  durable  as  it  is  when  any  of 
the  other  mordants  in  common  use  are  employed. 


168        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


When  it  is  necessary  to  stain  the  mordant,  so  as  ic 
enable  the  writer  to  perceive  whether  the  parts  intended 
to  be  gikled  have  been  thoroughly  covered,  some  dry 
color  should  be  ground  with  the  size.  For  gilding  on  a 
light  ground,  Indian  red  is  preferable  for  this  purpose. 
On  a  dark  ground  the  pounce  itself  is  sufficient.  If 
any  parts  have  not  been  touched  by  the  size,  when  the 
gold  leaf  is  applied  these  omissions  will  be  very  per- 
ceptible, and  any  attempt  to  patch  them  up  afterwards 
will  be  a  failure,  as  it  will  not  be  possible  to  prevent 
them  xrom  showing. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 

We  now  approacli  a  branch  of  art  which,  though  at- 
tended with  some  difficulty  to  the  beginner,  is  yet,  when 
it  is  thoroughly  comprehended  and  mastered,  undoubt- 
edly the  most  beautiful  and  enticing  that  the  sign  writer 
is  called  upon  to  exercise, — we  refer  to  the  art  of  glass 
embossing,  and  writing  on  glass. 

Formerly,  glass  was  an  expensive  luxury  in  which  but 
few  could  indulge.  Consequently,  until  comparatively 
recent  times,  the  better  class  of  shops  and  private  houses 
were  glazed  with  small  diamond  panes,  which  are  even 
now  to  be  seen  in  some  old-fashioned  buildings.  These 
were  superseded  by  small  squares  of  sheet  or  crown  glass, 
which  could  not  be  made  to  any  great  size.  Eventually, 
the  manufacture  of  glass  received  much  attention,  and  on 
the  repeal  of  the  obnoxious  Window  Tax  and  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  Excise  Duty  on  glass,  the  quality  of  the  arti- 
cle itself  became  much  improved,  and  at  the  present  time 
the  plate  glass  produced  in  this  country  is  equal,  and  in 
some  respects  superior,  to  that  produced  on  the  continent, 
where  various  firms  have  long  been  celebrated  for  the 
excellent  quality  of  their  glass  manufactures. 

Whilst  the  glass  formerly  used  was  almost  invariably 
the  common  crown  or  sheet,  its  decoration  became  a 
matter  of  consideration,  it  being  seldom  that  a  decorator 
would  waste  his  time  and  material  in  endeavoring  to 
efifect  that  which,  when  completed,  was,  owing  to  the 
IS 


170  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


thinness  of  the  article,  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  the  most 
trifling  accident.  But  now  that  such  vast  improvements 
have  been  made  in  the  manufacture  of  plate- glass,  and 
it  may  readily  be  procured  in  large  dimensions  and 
thickness,  at  a  comparatively  moderate  cost,  the  decora- 
tor has  bestowed  much  attention  upon  it;  and  the  result 
has  been  the  introduction  of  the  art  of  glass  embossing 
and  writing  in  burnished  gold,  which  has  now  arrived 
at  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  This  species  of  decora- 
tion does  not  date  back,  probably,  more  than  forty  or 
fifty  years,  but  within  the  last  few  years  it  has  been 
brought  to  a  marvellous  state  of  development ;  and  its 
superiority  over  any  other  method  of  surface  decoration 
has  led  to  its  very  general  adoption  in  tlie  more  tastily 
fitted-up  public-house  bars  of  the  metropolis,  and  of  the 
better  class  of  public-houses  in  the  leading  provincial 
towns.  It  is  now  no  uncommon  thing  for  the  inside 
walls  of  a  richly-decorated  spirit  bar  to  be  entirely  cov- 
ered with  glass,  either  embossed  or  written  on  in  bur- 
nished and  mat  gold,  the  whole  being  the  work  of  the 
more  advanced  sign  writers.  Shop  facias  executed  in 
the  same  manner  and  on  the  same  material  are  now  quite 
common,  whereas  twenty  years  ago  they  were  regarded 
as  novelties.  Show  boards  for  advertising  purposes  are 
also — to  use  an  Irishism — made  of  plate  glass.  Trades- 
men's vans  of  the  better  sort  are  fitted  with  plate  glass 
sides,  which  the  embosser  is  called  upon  to  adorn  with 
inscriptive  embellishment.  In  fact,  glass  has  been 
adopted  for  a  variety  of  purposes  which  a  few  years  ago 
Avas  never  dreamt  of.  We  have  crystal  window  bars  for 
shop  fronts ;  perforated  glass  and  louvre  ventilators  of 
different  kinds ;  glass  for  use  as  tiles  and  slates ;  glass 
balusters  and  handrails ;  glass  door-handles,  knobs,  and 
fingerplates;  glass  mirror  frames ;  plate  glass  for  sur- 
face decoration,  and  for  other  pur])oses. 

There  is,  however,  amongst  the  British  manufacturers 
of  plate  glass  a  combination  of  interest,  by  which  the 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


171 


prices  are  kept  up  to  one  uniform  level.  No  doubt  in 
course  of  time  this  combination  will  be  broken  down, 
and  the  price  of  plate  glass  reduced  by  the  effect  of  com- 
petition. 

The  best  British  white  sheet  glass  is  sometimes  used 
for  embossing, — in  fact,  it  is  very  frequently  employed 
in  the  case  of  small  sized  panes, — but  it  requires  to  be  flat- 
tened and  polished.  The  largest  sizes  that  can  be  made 
in  the  various  substances  of  sheet  glass,  ranging  from 
15  oz.  to  42  oz.  per  foot  super,  are  as  follows,  but  the 
extreme  limits  of  length  and  width  cannot  be  combined 
in  the  same  sheet : — 

Extreme  Length.  Extreme  Width.  Extreme  Ares*. 

15  oz   55  in   36  in   12^  feet. 

21  oz   75  in   45  in   18  feet. 

26  oz   75  in   45  in   17  feet. 

32  oz   65  in   43  in   15  feet. 

36  oz   60  in   42  in  12^  feet. 

42  oz   55  in   38  in   11  feet. 


The  extreme  area,  taken  in  connection  with  the  ex- 
treme length  or  width  required  in  any  particular  case, 
will  indicate  pretty  accurately  the  corresponding  limit 
of  width  or  length. 

With  regard  to  the  glass  itself,  it  need  only  be  added 
that  the  risk  of  carriage  is  borne  by  the  purchaser  and 
not  the  manufacturer. 

Various  causes  have  contributed  to  bring  the  beauti- 
ful art  of  glass  embossing  to  the  degree  of  perfection  to 
which  it  has  already  attained.  First,  it  may  be  traced 
to  the  great  improvements  which  have  taken  place  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  glass  itself ;  secondly,  to  that  love 
of  display  which  is  characteristic  of  all  nations  in  a  high 
state  of  civilization  ;  thirdly,  to  the  competition  which 
exists  among  all  classes  of  tradesmen  and  shopkeepers ; 
and  lastly,  as  a  natural  corollary  to  competition,  to  the 
necessity  of  extensive  publicity  by  means  of  attractive 
decoration.    In  addition  to  these  primary  causes,  may 


172      SIGN  WRirmG  and  glass  embossing. 


be  added  that  of  the  superior  education  of  the  art-work- 
man himself,  and  the  friendly  livalry  which  has  sprung 
up  between  different  artizans  in  the  same  branches  of  art. 

But,  notwithstanding  all  these  various  causes  have 
contributed  to  the  development  of  the  art,  it  is  an  in- 
credible fact  that  it  has  been  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  the  metropolitan  writers.  In  the  provinces,  with  the 
exception  of  one  or  two  large  towns,  embossed  glass 
work  is  even  now  seldom  seen,  and  the  art  is  hardly  ever 
practised.  For  some  reason  or  other  the  masters  of  the 
craft  in  ])rovincial  towns  have  been  content  to  send  their 
orders  to  London  to  be  executed.  But  this  should  not 
be.  The  art  itself  is  exceedingly  simple,  presenting  no 
obstacles  that  may  not  readily  be  overcome  by  any  per- 
son capable  of  using  the  pencil.  Nor  are  the  materials 
required  either  numerous  or  difficult  to  procure.  If  it 
has  been  thought  by  any  one  that  he  has  not  got  the 
requisite  facilities  for  carrying  on  the  work,  let  him  rest 
assured  that  these  are  to  be  found  in  every  writer's  work- 
shop, that  no  expensive  contrivances  are  necessary,  and 
that  nearly  the  whole  of  the  articles  which  are  employed 
are  at  hand.  But  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the 
majority  of  provincial  writers  are  ignorant  of  the  modus 
operandi  of  the  art  itself ;  and  consequently  send  their 
orders  to  London  as  a  matter  of  necessity.  The  quality 
of  the  little  embossed  work  that  is  effected  in  the  country 
rather  strengthens  this  assumption.  AVhencver  it  is  at- 
tempted by  a  provincial  writer,  it  is  generally  a  failure, 
as  every  one  who  has  paid  attention  to  this  matter  must 
admit.  The  same  remark  applies  to  writing  in  bur- 
nished gold  on  glass.  It  is  very  seldom  that  it  is  per- 
fectly satisfactory  as  it  comes  from  the  hand  of  the  work- 
man, unless  he  has  had  experience  in  London.  Of  course 
there  is  no  real  reason  why  this  should  be  the  case. 
If  it  be  urged  that  there  is  not  sufficient  demand  in  the 
provinces  for  this  species  of  writing,  we  answer  that  the 
demand  will  follow  the  supply.    As  soon  as  ever  the 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


173 


writer  has  attained  to  anything  approaching  perfection, 
and  takes  care  to  let  his  workmanship  be  seen,  a  demand 
for  it  will  follow  as  a  matter  of  course.  The  rivalry 
existing  amongst  tradesmen  of  different  classes  will  en- 
sure this  as  an  inevitable  result.  It  is  true  that,  in  the 
first  instance,  embossed  glass  and  burnished  gold  writing 
on  glass  are  somewhat  expensive,  but  this  is  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  the  durability  of  the  work.  There 
is  certainly  the  objection  that  the  glass  may  get  broken, 
but  this  is  a  remote  contingency,  and  may  be  provided 
against  by  insurance  in  any  plate-glass  insurance  com- 
pany, for  an  almost  nominal  payment. 

We  have  said  that  the  art  of  glass  embossing  is  of 
quite  recent  origin.  Indeed,  as  at  present  practised,  it 
does  not  date  back  for  more  than  twenty  or  thirty  years 
at  the  most.  We  say  *^as  at  present  practised,^'  because 
it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  kindred  art  of  etching  on 
glass  by  means  of  acid  was  discovered  by  Scli  wan  hard  t, 
so  long  ago  as  the  year  1670.  Professor  Beckmann  sup- 
poses that  Schwanhardt  had  discovered  fluoric  acid  it- 
self; for,  in  the  year  1725,  there  appeared  in  a  periodi- 
cal work  the  following  recipe  for  making  a  powerful 
acid,  by  which  figures  of  every  kind  can  be  etched  upon 
glass  : — 

*'  When  the  spiritus  niiri per  disUllationem  has  passed  into  the 
recipient,  ply  it  with  a  strong  fire,  and  when  well  dephlegmated, 
pour  it,  as  it  corrodes  ordinary  glass,  into  a  Weldenberg  flask. 
Then  throw  into  it  a  pulverized  green  Bohemian  emerald,  other- 
wise called  hesphorus  (which,  when  reduced  to  powder,  and 
heated,  emits  in  the  dark  a  green  light),  and  place  it  in  warm 
Band  for  24  hours.  Take  a  piece  of  glass  well  cleaned  and  freed 
from  all  grease  by  means  of  a  ley  ;  put  a  border  of  wax  round  it, 
about  an  inch  in  height,  and  cover  it  all  over  with  the  above  acid. 
The  longer  you  let  it  stand  the  better ;  and  at  the  end  of  some 
time  the  glass  will  be  corroded,  and  the  figures  which  have  been 
traced  out  with  sulphur  and  varnish  will  appear  as  if  raised  above 
the  pane  of  glass." 

Professor  Beckmann  seems  to  have  no  doubt  that  the 
Bohemian  emerald,  or  hesphorus,  mentioned  in  this  re- 
15* 


174 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


cipe,  is  green  sparry  fluor  ;  and  he  has  as  little  doubt  of 
the  recipe  itself  having  passed  from  Schwanhardt  and 
his  scholars  to  the  periodical  work  of  1725,  from  which 
it  was  inserted  in  the  '^Oekonomische  Encyclopadie'^  of 
Krunitz.  This  supposition  certainly  acquires  a  consid- 
erable degree  of  probability  from  the  similarity  of 
Schwanhardt's  method  of  etching  to  that  which  is  here 
recommended,  and  which  is  so  different  from  what  is 
now  followed.* 

The  modern  art  of  embossiiiii;  on  glass  differs  some- 
what from  the  method  pursued  by  Schwanhardt,  as  given 
by  Beckmann,  the  practice  now  being  to  bite  the  pat- 
tern into  the  glass,  and  then  to  obscure  the  surface  of 
the  glass  by  grinding,  when  the  pattern  Avill  appear 
bright,  because  being  burnt  into  the  surface,  the  grind- 
ing will  not  touch  it.  Schwanhardt,  on  the  contrary, 
covered  his  design  with  the  etching  ground — the  "  sul- 
phur and  varnish," — and  then  by  his  liquid  corroded 
the  glass  around  it,  leaving  the  pattern  clear,  and  the 
ground  semi-obscured.  In  many  respects  modern  artists 
have  the  advantage  over  those  of  the  last  century.  In 
the  first  place,  the  materials  used  have  now  become  arti- 
cles of  commerce,  and  no  one  at  present  need  incur  the 
labor  and  trouble  of  preparing  them  for  his  own  use. 
The  artists  of  old  nuist  have  experienced  some  consider- 
able difficulty  in  this  respect.  Having  to  manufacture 
their  own  pigments  and  chemical  preparations,  they  were 
necessarily  compelled  to  study  practical  chemistry,  and 
to  make  experiments  of  various  kinds.  The  results  of 
the  experiments  were  in  some  instances  committed  to 
paper,  and  the  manuscripts  are  still  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum  and  other  libraries.  Except,  however, 
in  an  archaeological  point  of  view,  these  documents  are 
of  little  value,  and  the  student  would  be  rather  per- 


*See  article  "  Glass,"  in  Enc.  Briit. 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


175 


plexed  than  assisted  by  referring  to  them.  Some  mod- 
ern authors  have  quoted  extracts  from  a  few  of  these  old 
writings,  and  notably  from  those  of  "  Theophilus,"  in 
the  eleventh  century,  as  if  they  possessed  a  certain  value 
to  the  student ;  but  for  purposes  of  practical  utility  they 
are  now  utterly  worthless.  Many  of  the  names  and 
terms  employed  in  these  "  Secreta/'  as  they  were  called, 
are  quite  unintelligible.  Mrs.  Merrifield,  in  her  Orig- 
inal Treatises  on  the  Arts  of  Painting/'  published  in 
1849,  has  translated  several  of  the  more  important  of 
these  manuscripts ;  and,  amongst  others,  the  famous  es- 
say of  Eraclius,  "De  Artibus  Romanorum,"  which  is 
variously  attributed  to  the  seventh,  tenth,  and  thirteenth 
centuries.  As  showing  the  value  which  may  be  put 
upon  the  recipes  contained  in  this  treatise,  we  give  the 
following  extract  as  being  appropriate  to  the  present 
chapter,  leaving  the  reader  to  form  his  own  estimate  of 
it,  and  to  judge  accordingly  of  the  other  portions  of  the 
production  of  the  "  very  wise  man,''  Eraclius,  who,  in 
his  preface,  says,  "  I  indeed  write  nothing  to  you,  which 
I  have  not  first  tried  myself;" — 

"  Of  Sculpturing  Glass. 

*'  O  all  you  artists,  who  wish  to  engrave  in  a  beautiful  manner 
on  glass,  I  will  now  show  you  what  1  myself  have  tried.  I  sought 
fat  worms,  wliich  the  plough  turns  up  from  the  earth  ;  and  the 
arts  useful  in  these  things  bid  me  at  the  same  time  seek  vinegar, 
and  the  warm  blood  of  a  large  he-goat,  which  I  had  cunningly  fed 
for  a  short  time  on  strong  ivy,  tied  up  under  cover.  After  this, 
I  threw  tlie  worms  and  vinegar  into  the  warm  blood,  and  anointed 
all  the  bright  shining  vessels,  after  which  I  tried  to  carve  the  glass 
with  the  hard  stone  called  pyrites." 

It  is  a  pity  the  result  of  this  trial  is  not  recorded  by 
Eraclius,  but  it  may  readily  be  guessed. 

From  the  writings  of  Theophilus,  however,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  isinglass  size  was  used  as  a  mordant  for  gold 
even  in  his  day.  In  one  of  his  chapters  on  the  prepara- 
tion of  pigments,  he  gives  the  following  recipe  : — 

"  Take  the  bladder  of  a  fish  which  is  called  huso  (sturgeon), 


176        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


and  washing  it  three  times  in  tepid  water,  leave  it  to  soften  a 
night,  and  on  the  morrow  warm  it  on  a  tire,  so  that  it  does  not 
boil  up  until  you  prove  with  your  finger  if  it  adhere,  and  when  it 
does  adhere  strongly,  the  glue  is  good."* 

The  purest  form  of  commercial  gelatine  at  the  present 
day,  is  isinglass,  the  use  of  which,  for  effecting  the  bur- 
nished writing  on  glass,  will  be  shown  in  a  subsequent 
page.  The  best  description  is  manufactured  in  Russia, 
from  the  air  bladders  and  sounds  of  the  different  species 
of  sturgeon,  inhabiting  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas  and 
their  tributaries.  The  tissues  are  cleansed,  dried,  and 
scraped,  forming  what  is  called  "  leaf  isinglass  or  they 
are  twisted  into  various  forms,  and  known  as  "  long 
and  "short  staple;"  or  folded  into  packages,  called 
"  book  isinglass."  The  delicate  filaments  in  which  isin- 
glass is  usually  sold  are  cut  by  machinery.  If  it  is  good 
it  should  be  colorless,  and  perfectly  soluble  in  hot  water. 
There  is  an  inferior  variety,  called  "  ribbon  isinglass," 
but  this  is  not  sufficiently  pure  for  the  purpose  of  gild- 
ing on  glass. 

All  the  materials,  then,  having  become  articles  of 
commerce,  it  would  be  superfluous  to  refer  further  to  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  prepared.  They  can  be  ob- 
tained cheaper  and  better  than  they  could  be  manufac- 
tured by  the  artist,  who  only  uses  them  in  small  quanti- 
ties ;  and,  therefore,  the  student  is  recommended  to  pay 
no  attention  whatever  to  the  old  "  Secreta,"  nearly  all  of 
which  are  now  obsolete,  and  only  calculated  to  perplex 
and  bewilder. 

Let  us  now  direct  our  attention  to  the  more  immedi- 
ate subject  in  hand, — viz.,  glass  embossing,  and  subse- 
quently, in  the  next  chapter,  to  the  companion  art  of 
BURNISHED  WRITING  ON  GLASS,  Sometimes  called, 
though  erroneously,  gold  enamelling. 

First,  let  it  be  clearly  understood  that  there  is  only 
one  acid  that  will  corrode,  bite  into,  or  dissolve  glass, 


*Mr.  Robert  Hendrie's  translation. 


-GLASS  EMBOSSINa. 


177 


and  that  is  hydrofluoric,  or  fluoric  acid.  This, 
then,  is,  of  course,  the  principal  agent  employed  in  glass 
embossing,  and  as  sucli  we  give  a  few  words  as  to  its 
properties.  Fluoric  acid  is  a  colorless  liquid,  sold  by  all 
inanufacturing  chemists,  and,  as  its  property  is  to  dissolve 
glass,  it  must  be  kept  in  a  vessel  made  of  lead,  silver,  pla- 
tinum, or  gutta  percha,  the  latter  being  now  generally 
used,  owing  to  its  cheapness.  But  owing  to  its  dangerous 
properties,  it  is  never  employed  in  its  pure  form.  The 
glass  embosser  generally  reduces  its  strength  by  the  ad- 
dition of  about  two-thirds  of  its  bulk  in  water, — that  is  to 
say,  to  a  pint  of  pure  fluoric  acid,  he  would  add  a  quart 
of  water.  And  even  when  its  strength  is  thus  reduced, 
it  will,  upon  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  emit  a  white 
vapor,  which  is  pungent,  irritating,  and  poisonous.  The 
discovery  of  hydrofluoric  acid  is  attributed  to  Selieele,  in 
1771 ;  but  it  was  first  procured  in  its  pure  state  by  MM. 
Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard,  in  1810,  and  desci'ibed  in  the 
second  volume  of  their  Recherches  Fhysico  Chimiques. 
It  is  produced  by  heating  concentrated  sulpliuric  acid 
(oil  of  vitriol)  and  pure  fluor  spar  in  retorts  of  silver  and 
lead,  and  by  exposing  the  mixture  to  the  heat  of  a  char- 
coal fire,  a  powerful  corrosive  acid  is  distilled  over,  which 
is  condensed  in  receivers  of  the  same  metal  artificial Iv 
cooled.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  investigated  the  properties 
of  fluoric  acid,  and  published  an  account  of  his  experi- 
ments and  observations  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions^' for  1813.  These,  however,  are  only  intelligible 
to  the  practical  chemist.  He  discovered  that,  when 
mixed  with  water,  fluoric  acid  produced  a  high  degree 
of  heat ;  and  such  is  its  power  of  attraction  for  water, 
that  it  became  denser  by  continuing  with  that  fluid. 
By  adding  water  in  very  small  quantities  at  a  time,  to 
pure  fluoric  acid,  Sir  Humphry  Davy  found  that  its 
Fpecific  gravity,  which  is  1*0609,  gradually  increased  till 
it  became  1*25 ;  and  it  is  the  only  known  body  possessed 
of  this  property.    When  it  comes  in  contact  with  glass, 


178 


SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


it  speedily  corrodes  it,  just  as  aquafortis  corrodes  copper; 
and  as  it  is  the  only  acid  which  has  this  property,  it  Ls 
indispensable  to  the  glass  embosser. 

The  method  of  using  fluoric  acid  will  be  described 
fully  hereafter. 

Before  doing  so,  we  would  refer  to  another  article, 
which  is  useful  in  glass  embossing  of  a  particular  kind, 
and  that  is  fluor  spar,  from  which  fluoric  acid  is  ob- 
tained. This  spar,  which  is  found  in  large  quantities  in 
Derbyshire,  is  called  fluor  spar,  from  the  Latin  fluo,  to 
flow,  in  allusion  to  its  importance  as  a  flux,  which  makes 
it  almost  invaluable  to  the  glass  stainer.  In  Derbyshire, 
it  is  commonly  called  "  Blue  John."  The  colors  of  fluor 
spar,  which  are  very  various,  partake  sometimes  of  a 
cast  of  red,  violet,  green,  yellow,  and  white,  two  or  three 
different  shades  being  occasionally  observable  on  one 
small  lump.  It  has  a  very  pretty  appearance.  Two 
pieces  of  it  rubbed  together  in  the  dark  phosphoresce ; 
and  its  powder  thrown  upon  hot  coals  emits  a  bluish  or 
greenish  light.  It  is  never  required  by  the  glass  em- 
bosser except  in  a  pulverized  state.  Its  chemical  name 
\&  fluoride  of  calcium.  The  spar  being  an  aggregation  of 
crystals,  the  laminae  easily  split  and  separate,  and  may 
be  pounded  with  a  pestle  and  mortar,  or  ground  up  by  a 
large  muller  on  a  stone  such  as  is  used  by  painters  for 
grinding  their  colors.  It  is  curious  that  this  spar,  though 
so  very  brittle,  admits  of  being  worked  on  the  turning 
lathe,  into  vases,  paterse,  and  other  ornaments,  and  that 
it  will  bear  a  polish  similar  to  marble.  Some  fine  speci- 
mens of  these  ornaments  may  be  seen  at  the  Geological 
Museum  in  Jermyn  Street,  London.  This  useful  mine- 
ral may  be  procured  of  the  manufacturing  chemist  either 
in  its  rocky  state,  or  pulverized  ;  and  it  is  sold  at  a  few 
pence  per  pound. 

There  is  also  another  article  to  which  reference  may 
be  here  made,  as  being  employed  for  a  certain  kind  of 
glass  work, — namely,  oil  of  vitriol,  or,  as  it  is  perhaps 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


179 


more  generally  called,  sulphuric  acid.  This  is  a  very 
common  chemical,  being  largely  used  in  different  manu- 
factures, and  may  be  procured  of  any  chemist. 

The  pattern  that  has  to  be  made  on  the  glass  must  be 
painted  on  it  before  the  application  of  the  fluoric  acid, 
because  if  the  acid  were  poured  over  the  entire  naked 
surface  of  the  glass,  it  would  obviously  remove  the  pol- 
ished surface  evenly  all  over,  and  destroy  its  transpa- 
rency. The  usual  method  of  procedure  is  to  set  out  the 
pattern  on  a  piece  of  tracing  paper,  the  same  as  archi- 
tects and  draughtsmen  use,  and  which  is  semi-trans})a- 
rent,  so  that  whatever  is  drawn  on  one  side  is  plainly 
visible  on  the  other.  The  pattern  or  design  should  be 
sketched  out  first,  with  a  piece  of  lead  pencil,  and  then 
carefully  outlined  with  a  writing  pencil  with  any  kind 
of  black  paint,  or  Brunswick  black, — the  latter  being 
preferable  owing  to  the  rapidity  with  which  it  dries. 
The  design  being  completed  on  the  tracing  paper,  and 
showing  equally  well  on  either  side,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  turn  the  paper  over  to  have  the  reverse  of  the  design 
as  it  must  be  worked  on  to  the  surface  of  the  glass. 

It  is  the  general  practice  with  writers  to  lay  the  glass 
flat  on  a  bench  or  table,  with  the  design  under  it,  the  re- 
verse side  of  the  tracing  paper  being  uppermost.  The 
design,  which,  as  we  have  said,  shows  through  the  paper, 
is  then  traced  on  to  the  glass  with  a  sable  pencil,  the  ve- 
hicle used  being  Brunswick  black  or  black  Japan.  When 
the  whole  design  has  been  painted  on  the  glass  in  this 
way,  the  straight  lines  may  be  improved  by  being  cut 
up  with  a  carpenter's  chisel — a  narrow  one — passed  along 
a  straight  edge.  The  black  is  easily  cut  or  chip})ed  off 
the  glass,  so  that  the  greatest  exactitude  can  be  obtained 
in  the  several  lines. 

It  being  desirable  that  the  hands  should  not  touch  the 
glass  when  the  design  is  being  painted  upon  it,  experi- 
enced embossers  use  an  arm  rest,  which  extends  entirely 
across  the  glass,  and  this  serves  the  same  purpose  as  a 


180       SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


mahl  stick  in  writing  on  upright  surfaces.  This  arm 
rest  is  made  of  wood,  of  about  one  inch  in  thickness.  It 
is  generally  about  3  or  5  inches  wide,  and  the  length  is 
according  to  the  requirements.  A  piece  of  wood  at  each 
end  of  about  2  inches  in  height  keeps  it  from  touching 
the  glass. 

Assuming  that  the  design  on  the  glass  is  to  be  left 
clear  and  the  flat  surface  ground  or  obscured,  the  Bruns- 
wick black,  which  is  used  for  stopping  out  the  acid, 
must  be  placed  only  where  the  glass  is  to  be  ground. 

When  the  Brunswick  black  has  become  hard,  which  it 
will  do  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours,  it  is  ready  to  receive 
the  fluoric  acid.  It  is  necessary  to  caution  the  learner 
against  using  the  acid  too  soon  after  the  application  of 
the  black.  This  is  a  deceptive  material  in  the  hands  of 
the  inexperienced.  In  a  few  minutes  it  has  the  appear- 
ance of  being  perfectly  dry,  and  it  is  so  as  regards  the 
touch,  but  though  dry  it  does  not  harden  for  at  least  ten 
or  twelve  hours,  and  it  ought  always  to  be  allowed  to 
stand  for  this  time.  If  the  acid  be  poured  on  before  the 
black  has  had  time  to  harden,  it  will  permeate  through 
it  in  some  parts  and  destroy  the  sharp  outline  of  the  de- 
sign. The  result  is  about  the  same  as  would  be  pro- 
duced if  the  glass  was  coated  with  any  common  oil 
color,  and  then  soaked  with  water.  Glass  being  non- 
absorbent,  the  water  would  soon  find  its  way  between  the 
paint  and  the  glass.  This  percolation  of  the  acid  through 
the  ground  may  arise  from  two  causes.  First,  it  may 
result  from  the  use  of  an  inferior  Brunswick  black  ;  and, 
secondly,  from  applying  the  acid  before  the  black  has 
become  thoroughly  dry  and  hard.  It  is,  therefore,  ad- 
visable to  test  the  quality  of  the  Brunswick  black  on  a 
small  piece  of  glass,  to  show  its  power  of  resistance  to 
the  acid,  before  using  it  on  any  large  and  important 
work,  because  it  may  be  a  serious  matter  if,  after  the  de- 
sign is  finished,  it  is  found  that  the  materia)  in  which  it 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


181 


IS  executed  is  incapable  of  stopping  out  the  acid  from 
those  portions  of  the  glass  which  it  covers. 

With  this  word  of  caution,  we  proceed  with  the  next 
step.  The  glass  still  lying  flat  on  the  bench,  a  ledge  or 
wall  must  be  made  around  the  four  sides,  to  keep  the 
liquid  from  running  off.  This  ledge  or  wall  is  easily 
made  with  the  common  Eussian  tallow,  or  any  kind  of 
soft  wax,  which  should  be  laid  on  with  a  glazier's  putty 
knife,  to  the  height  of  about  half  an  inch  all  round. 

The  work  is  now  ready  to  receive  the  fluoric  acid. 
This  should  be  poured  on  evenly  all  over,  to  the  depth 
of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch ;  and  in  order  that  it  may 
lie  evenly,  and  not  have  a  greater  depth  on  one  side  than 
the  other,  a  few  wooden  wedges  will  be  found  of  service, 
or,  the  glass  may  be  made  perfectly  level  by  means  of 
an  ordinary  spirit  level,  before  the  acid  is  applied.  Un- 
less the  glass  be  level  and  the  acid  flows  evenly  over  the 
whole  surface,  the  pattern  will  be  bit  in  deeper  in  some 
places  than  in  others,  and  it  may  happen  that  the  grind- 
ing afterwards  will  be  unsatisfactory.  This  is  one  reason 
why  the  common  sheet  glass  is  not  used  by  embossers  ; 
its  surface  being  wavy,  the  acid  would  lie  about  in  pools, 
and  the  biting-in  would  be  irregular.  And,  again,  if  the 
surface  had  to  be  obscured,  the  grinding  would  be  most 
unsatisfactory,  as  the  projections  would  receive  a  portion 
of  the  rubbing  which  ought  to  belong  to  the  indentations, 
and  different  degrees  of  opacity  would  be  apparent,  un- 
less the  operator  spent  a  vast  amount  of  time  and  labor 
in  remedying  the  defect.  After  the  acid  has  remained 
on  the  glass  for  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour,  it  may 
be  drained  off.  A  breach  should  be  made  in  the  ledge 
of  wax  at  one  corner,  and  the  liquid,  as  it  runs  off, 
should  be  caught  in  the  bottle  in  which  it  is  kept,  as  it 
may  be  used  again  and  again. 

In  using  fluoric  acid  the  operator  must  exercise  grea 
caution,  the  properties  of  the  acid  being  most  destructive 
to  animal  matter.    Consequently,  it  should  never  be 
16 


182       SIGN  WEITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 

permitted  to  touch  the  hands,  and  if  by  accident  it 
should  do  so,  the  acid  should  at  once  be  washed  off  with 
cold  water,  and  the  hands  wiped  dry.  The  white  fumes 
which  arise  when  the  acid  is  poured  on  the  glass  are  very 
dangerous,  and  must  not  be  inhaled.  It  is  advisable  not 
to  hold  the  head  over  the  glass,  because  the  vapor  which 
arises,  and  which  is  not  always  visible,  will  enter  the 
system,  and  will  produce  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  the 
most  irritating  effects,  followed  by  a  severe  and  trouble- 
some headache.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  acid  is  poured 
on  to  the  glass  or  in  any  way  exposed  to  the  atmosphere 
of  the  workshop,  the  embosser  must  keep  at  a  respectful 
distance  from  it,  if  he  would  avoid  the  evil  consequences 
which  otherwise  would  be  certain  to  result. 

The  glass  now  requires  to  be  carefully  cleansed  of 
both  the  acid  and  Brunswick  black.  The  former  is  re- 
moved by  merely  rinsing  the  glass  with  cold  water  ;  the 
latter  by  scraping  with  a  knife,  and  subsequently  by  a 
strong  ley  or  by  turpentine,  which  must  in  turn  be 
cleansed  off  with  soap  and  water.  This  requires  very 
careful  management,  or  the  black  will  cling  about  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  design,  Avhich  is  now  absolutely  bit 
into  the  glass,  and  when  the  surface  is  obscured,  the  fact 
of  its  existence  will  become  intensified. 

The  next  process  is  the  grinding  or  obscuring  the 
glass.  This  is  most  readily  effected  with  a  flat  block  of 
copper,  or  a  slab  of  ground  glass,  and  emery  powder, 
moistened  with  water,  and  rubbed  with  briskness  for 
some  time.  The  glass  should  be  well  bedded  on  some 
soft  material,  such  as  baize  or  cotton  goods,  to  prevent 
the  pressure  from  breaking  it,  M'hich  it  might  do  if  it 
were  not  well  supported  underneath.  The  slab,  whether 
it  be  of  copper  or  glass,  must  have  a  perfectly  flat  sur- 
face, or  it  may  touch  in  some  places  the  parts  that  have 
been  bit  in  and  partially  obscure  or  scratch  them,  ren- 
dering opaque  points  that  should  be  clear  and  bright 
This  operation  is  not  difficult,  but  demands  patience  and 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


183 


care.  It  is  generally  performed  by  laborers.  A  small 
piece  of  glass  may  be  ground  in  an  hour  or  two ;  but  a 
square  of  eight  or  ten  feet  will  occupy  an  entire  day. 
The  rubbing  process  is  purely  mechanical,  the  only  thing 
required  being  the  exercise  of  some  amount  of  judgnfient 
to  ensure  that  the  surface  is  evenly  treated,  and  not 
made  more  opaque  in  one  part  than  in  another.  If  a 
part  only  of  the  glass  has  to  be  obscured,  as  is  most  of 
ten  the  case,  the  greatest  nicety  is  required  in  rubbing 
up  to  the  edge  of  the  part  to  be  obscured,  so  as  not  to 
touch  the  portion  to  be  left  perfectly  transparent.  It  is 
customary  for  the  workman  to  bite  in  a  line  of  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  width  between  the  portion  to  be 
obscured  and  the  untouched  polished  surface,  in  order 
that  the  grinder  may  have  a  margin  to  work  to ;  other- 
wise it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  divide,  as  it  were, 
the  obscure  from  the  clear  parts.  A  few  wooden  moulds 
and  straight  edges  are  serviceable  aids  in  grinding  to  a 
given  line. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  emery  powder  used  for 
obscuring;  some  qualities  are  very  fine  and  others  very 
coarse ;  and  these  must  be  used  according  as  the  glass  is 
required  to  be  very  opaque  or  only  just  obscured.  The 
coarser  the  emery  the  whiter  the  glass  becomes,  but  the 
greater  is  the  danger  of  the  grits  scratching  the  design. 
The  quality  generally  used  is  the  finest.  It  can  be  pro- 
cured at  most  oil  and  color  shops. 

Fine  sand  is  sometimes  used  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
scuring large  surfaces.  What  is  called  ^'  bird  sand  is 
very  effective,  or  the  fine  white  sand  which  comes  from 
the  forest  of  Fontainebleau  is  equally  suitable.  Many 
embossers  prefer  sand  to  emery,  and  in  some  cases  it  can 
be  used  more  advantageously.  Of  course,  both  the 
emery  powder  and  sand  must  be  kept  well  wetted 
during  the  process  of  rubbing,  or  they  will  fail  to  grind 
off  the  polish  of  the  glass,  and  simply  scratch  the  sur- 
face,— a  result  which  is  to  be  avoided. 


184       SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


Every  kind  of  glass  contains  in  its  composition  a  larg**- 
proportion  of  silicate.  The  ordinary  window  glass  is 
composed  of  the  silicate  of  potash  and  soda,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  other  matters,  to  correct  the  color.  When 
fluoric  acid  is  applied  to  glass,  the  fluorine  unites  with 
the  silicic  acid,  forming  fluosilic  acid,  which  rises  as  an 
invisible  but  exceedingly  pungent  vapor,  and  is  most 
destructive  to  nearly  all  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, and  must  not  therefore  be  inhaled  on  any  con- 
sideration. If  the  fluoric  acid  is  used  in  its  full  strength, 
it  roughens  the  glass  by  dissolving  its  surface  irregular- 
ly, but  if  its  strength  be  diluted  with  water,  the  glass  to 
which  it  is  applied  will  still  be  dissolved,  but  without 
producing  roughness. 

Another  method  is  sometimes  adopted  for  engraving 
on  glass.  This  is  to  procure  a  tray  made  of  lead,  and 
to  put  into  it  a  quantity  of  fluor  spar,  or  what  chemists 
call  fluoride  of  calcium,  finely  levigated,  and  then  to 
pour  on  the  fluor  spar  some  sulphuric  acid.  The  glass 
having  the  design  executed  upon  it  as  already  explained, 
should  be  placed  face  downwards  over  the  leaden  trough. 
Heat  must  then  be  applied  to  the  bottom  of  the  tray, 
and  this  will  cause  a  vapor  to  arise  which  will  dissolve  the 
glass  in  the  parts  which  have  not  been  protected  by  the 
stopping  out  medium.  The  vapor  which  thus  arises  is 
really  fluoric  acid.  This  method  of  procedure  is  best 
suited  for  small  pieces  of  glass,  and  may  be  adopted  ad- 
vantageously where  fluoricacid  can  not  readily  be  obtained. 

Fluoride  of  calcium  is  useful  for  another  purpose. 
After  the  fluoric  acid  is  poured  on  to  the  glass,  if  a  little 
of  this  pulverized  fluor  spar  be  sprinkled  on  it,  the  bit- 
ing in,  instead  of  being  clear  and  even,  will  be  rough 
and  irregular.  This  will  heighten  theeflect  for  particu- 
lar kinds  of  work,  especially  when  some  parts  are  left 
clear,  and  others  are  gilded. 

From  the  foregoing  explanations  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  modus  operandi  of  glass  embossing  is,  first,  to  cover 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


185 


certain  parts  of  the  glass  with  some  resinous  or  bitumin- 
ous substance,  which  is  called  a  ground,  and  then,  to 
expose  the  glass  to  the  action  of  a  corrosive  fluid,  which 
will  dissolve  its  surface  where  it  has  been  untouched  by 
the  stopping  out  medium,  but  will  have  no  effect  in 
those  parts  which  are  covered  by  the  ground.  The  stop- 
ping out  material  is  Brunswick  black,  and  the  corroding 
menstruum  fluoric  acid. 

Then,  there  are  other  kinds  of  glass  upon  which  the 
embosser  can  exercise  his  art  advantageously.  Colored 
glass  is  susceptible  of  much  beautiful  adornment  by 
means  of  fluoric  acid.  The  different  kinds  of  colored 
glass  are  called  "flashed,"  "pot  metal,'^  and  "stained." 
The  red  colored  glass,  known  as  "  Ruby,"  is  perhaps 
most  commonly  used,  and  that  is  invariably  "  flashed 
a  thin  layer  of  colored  glass  being  blown  upon  the  ordi- 
nary sheet  glass,  forming,  as  it  were,  a  sort  of  thin 
veneer  on  one  side  only.  Blue  is  also  generally  "  flash- 
ed." The  term  "  pot  metal  "  is  applied  to  glass  which 
is  more  or  less  deeply  colored  through  its  substance  by 
fusion  with  metallic  oxides.  "Stained"  glass  differs 
somewhat  from  either  of  the  preceding,  the  term  being 
applied  to  the  various  shades,  lemon,  yellow,  orange,  and 
red  (or  very  dark  orange),  which  are  produced  by  the 
peculiar  dyeing  or  penetrating  action  of  silver  upon 
white  glass  after  it  is  blown.  They  resemble  "flashed" 
colors  by  being  on  the  surface,  but  are  frequently  dis- 
tributed on  each  side  of  the  glass,  whilst  "flashing"  is 
always  confined  to  one  side. 

The  art  of  embossing  colored  glass  merely  consists  in 
dissolving  the  thin  veneer  of  color  fused  on  one  side, 
and  leaving  the  clear  glass  exposed  in  those  parts  from 
which  the  color  is  removed.  That  being  the  case,  it  is 
manifest  that  embossing  on  either  "stained"  or  "  pot 
metal  "  glass  is  out  of  the  question,  the  colors  in  the  one 
case  being  sometimes  on  both  sides,  and  in  the  other 
melted  through  the  entire  surface  of  the  material.  Ruby 
16^ 


186         SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


and  blue,  which  are  "  flashed/'  and  known  as  "enamel," 
or  surface  colors,  are  most  frequently  employed  for  busi- 
ness purposes,  either  as  lamp  glasses  or  window  trans- 
parences,  and  writing  on  these  colors  is  easily  eflPected, 
The  lettering  is  first  set  out  on  a  sheet  of  tracing  paper 
of  the  same  size  as  the  glass ;  the  glass  is  then  placed 
flat  upon  the  paper,  which,  having  been  turned  over, 
presents  the  writing  backwards,  and  the  letters  are  traced 
on  it  with  a  sable  pencil  charged  with  Brunswick 
black.  If  the  letters  are  intended  to  be  white  on  the 
ruby  or  blue,  they  must  be  left  open,  and  the  whole  of 
the  glass  covered  with  the  Brunswick  black  with  the 
exception  of  the  letters.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  let- 
ters have  to  be  left  red  or  blue,  they  alone  should  be 
w^ritten  with  the  Brunswick  black,  and  the  broad  surface 
of  the  glass  left  untouched.  After  the  stopping  out  ma- 
terial— the  Brunswick  black — is  thoroughly  dry  and 
hard,  a  wall  of  soft  wax  must  be  formed  round  the  mar- 
gin of  the  glass,  and  a  quantity  of  fluoric  acid  poured 
over  the  entire  surface.  In  about  twenty  minutes  the 
enamel  which  is  not  covered  with  the  black  will  begin 
to  dissolve  and  the  white  clear  glass  will  become  visible. 
The  time  occupied  in  biting  off  the  color  varies  according 
to  the  hardness  and  thickness  of  the  veneer,  but  as  a 
general  rule  it  will  take  an  hour  or  more.  It  is  often 
the  case  that  the  flashed  color  will  dissolve  more  readily 
in  some  parts  than  in  others.  Hence  the  workman 
should  watch  the  action  of  the  acid,  and  if  it  is  found 
that  one  portion  of  the  color  has  been  burnt  off",  and  the 
clear  white  surface  of  the  glass  is  disclosed,  it  is  better 
to  drain  off  the  acid,  stop  out  the  parts  where  the  color 
has  been  removed, — which  can  be  done  by  covering 
them  with  tallow  rubbed  on  with  the  fingers, — and  then 
renew  the  application  of  the  corroding  medium.  Mr, 
Borton,  of  Bethnel  Green  Road,  and  other  manufactu- 
rers, have  introduced  flashed  glass  on  purpose  for  em- 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


187 


bossing,  from  which  the  veneer  is  readily  removed,  and 
the  work  of  the  embosser  much  facilitated. 

A  few  words  on  the  execution  of  designs  on  era- 
bossed  glass  may  not  be  altogether  unacceptable  to  those 
who  are  commencing  a  study  of  this  beautiful  art.  It 
must  be  evident  to  every  one,  that  means  more  or  less 
mechanical  are  adopted  to  produce  the  elaborate  and  of- 
tentimes elegant  designs  which  have  now  become  so 
common  in  the  window  glass  of  all  first-class,  buiklings. 
If  such  means  were  not  adopted,  the  cost  of  production 
would  be  so  serious  a  consideration,  that  it  would  place 
this  species  of  decoration  beyond  the  reach  of  any  but 
the  wealthiest.  But,  by  a  judicious  economy  of  design, 
the  artist  is  enabled  to  form  all  kinds  of  combinations 
without  laborious  effort,  and  the  most  elaborate  piece  of 
workmanship  may  be  the  outgrowth  of  a  few  simple 
though  well-arranged  patterns.  Of  course,  originality  ia 
this  matter,  as  well  as  in  others,  should  be  the  desidera- 
tum aimed  at,  and  no  mere  copying  of  the  productions 
of  other  workers  in  the  same  field  ought  to  be  regarded- 
with  favor.  The  suitability  of  the  design  to  the  pur- 
pose of  its  application  is  another  point  to  be  studied. 
Some  designs  may  undoubtedly  be  applied  almost  indis- 
criminately to  any  purpose ;  but  there  are  others  which 
have  only  a  limited  application,  and  may  be  altogether 
misplaced.  The  taste  of  the  workman  must  dictate  the 
appropriateness  or  otherwise  of  a  design,  and  he  should 
be  especially  careful  that  in  all  cases  the  drawing  be 
consistent  in  its  several  parts.  This  is  a  point  which 
even  skilled  workmen  frequently  disregard,  the  most 
incongruous  styles  of  composition  being  brought  together 
in  order  to  form  one  elaborate  whole. 

It  is  not  the  province  of  the  present  work  to  enlarge 
upon  this  subject,  but  a  few  hints  on  the  plan  usually 
adopted  to  build  up,  as  it  were,  designs  for  embossing  on 
^lass  may  be  introduced  here,  so  that  the  beginner  may 
have  a  tolerably  accurate  knowledge  upon  the  subject. 


188       SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


The  term  "  economy  of  design,"  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood in  the  sense  of  poverty  of  design.  Indeed,  so  far 
from  that  being  the  case,  we  hope  to  show  that  compre- 
hensiveness, as  a  whole,  may  be  obtains^d  by  the  econo- 
my of  parts  ;  that  is  to  say,  that  a  few  given  ornaments 
may  be  so  strung  together  by  geometrical  arrangements 
that  vastness  and  completeness  may  be  the  result.  In 
glass  embossing,  elaboration  is  obtained  by  the  repeti- 
tion of  design.  Everybody  at  all  acquainted  with  the 
moveable  type  borders  used  by  printers,  kqows  what  a 
multiplicity  of  ornament  may  be  produced  by  the  com- 
bination of  a  few  simple  patterns,  so  arranged  as  regards 
size  that  each  fits  into  the  other,  and  forms,  by  addition, 
a  compact  mass  of  design.  On  the  same  principle  de- 
signs for  embossing  are  produced,  or,  as  we  have  said, 
"  built  up.'^  As  an  illustration,  take  the  following  fig- 
ures, mere  fanciful  designs,  which  are  so  planned  that 
they  will  join  together  in  a  variety  of  pretty  forms. 
The  selection  is  made  from  a  combination  border  for 
the  use  of  printers,  from  Messrs.  S.  A.  George  &  Co., 
of  Philadelphia,  the  eminent  stereotypers,  the  whole 
border  numbering  thirty-eight  pieces.  For  our  purpose 
we  have  selected  ten  of  what  appear  to  be  the  most  use- 
ful, and  it  will  be  seen  by  what  follows  that  these  are 
amply  sufficient  to  form  into  designs  tv^hich  may  be 
adopted  with  considerable  effect  in  glass  embossing. 

1         2         3  4  5  6 

7        8         9  10 

These  different  ornaments  should  be  enlarged  to  sev- 
eral times  the  above  dimensions,  and  carefully  outlined 


GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


189 


with  Brunswick  black  on  tracing  paper,  care  being  taken 
that  each  one  occupies  a  square  of  the  same  dimensions. 
No.  4  is  in  length  just  double  that  of  the  others,  being 
the  principal  or  leading  ornament  of  the  series,  and 
No.  10  is  less  than  the  others.  When  these  figures 
have  been  drawn  on  tracing  paper,  a  number  of  squares 
of  the  same  size  should  be  set  out  on  a  sheet  of  paper, 
and  the  different  pieces  of  design  traced  on  to  the  squares 
in  such  a  way  that  the  lines  of  one  ornament  will  meet 
those  of  another,  forming  a  kind  of  connecting  link  be- 
tween them.  The  ornaments  being  drawn  on  tracing 
paper,  which  is  nearly  transparent,  show  on  either  side, 
and  to  reverse  the  design  all  that  is  needed  is  to  turn 
the  paper  over;  so  that,  if  required,  four  corners  can  be 
obtained  from  one  design.  The  best  plan  is  to  cut  the 
paper  on  which  the  patterns  are  drawn  to  a  uniform  size. 
Then  they  can  be  placed  as  desired  on  the  series  of 
squares  which  have  been  set  out  on  a  separate  sheet  of 
paper.  To  make  this  clear,  a  diagram  is  subjoined  show- 
ing the  method  of  working.  The  following  represents  the 
series  of  squares  upon  which  the  design  has  to  be  built : — > 


Now,  the  point  is  to  arrange  the  preceding  figures  on 
these  squares  in  such  a  way  that  an  acceptable — not  to 
say  elegant — design  may  be  formed.    That  this  can  be 


190         SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 

effected  without  much  difficulty  the  following  diagram, 
composed  of  Nos.  7,  8,  and  9,  serves  to  show  : — 


This  design,  which  would  have  a  pleasing  effect  for 
the  centre  of  a  pane  of  glass,  shows  not  merely  what  a 
few  simple  patterns  are  susceptible  of  producing  in  com- 
bination, but  illustrates  by  the  blackened  portion  the 
stage  of  the  work  just  prior  to  the  acid  being  poured 
over  the  glass.  The  lighter  half  represents  the  first  out- 
line of  the  work.  Of  course,  in  practice,  the  entire  de- 
sign would  be  brought  to  the  stage  shown  by  the  black 
part  of  the  engraving. 

The  same  patterns  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  form  cor- 
ners more  or  less  elaborate.  When  one  corner  has  been 
built  up,  the  other  three  can  readily  be  obtained  by 
means  of  transfer  paper.  Take  as  a  specimen,  the  fol- 
lowing corner  in  type  from  Messrs.  S.  A.  George  & 
Co.'s  establishment,  which,  with  a  slight  alteration 
here  and  there,  could  be  used  for  embossing  on  glass  : — 


GLASS  EMBOSSINa. 


191 


Lines  in  continuation  may  also  be  composed  of  the  same 
figures     Take  the  following  as  an  example : — 


With  these  few  hints,  we  leave  the  subject  to  the  skill 
and  ingenuity  of  the  student. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


BURmSHED  GILDING  ON  GLASS. 

The  art  of  burnished  gilding  on  glass  was  Tor  ft  long 
time  kept  a  profound  secret  by  the  masters  of  it ;  and  it 
was  not  until  this  kind  of  ornamentation  was  extensive- 
ly adopted,  that  a  knowledge  of  it  became  at  all  general 
amongst  professed  sign-writers.  Indeed,  even  now  there 
are  many  sign-writers  who  are  ignorant  of  the  art,  and 
look  upon  it  as  quite  special,  and  altogether  beyond  their 
reach.  And  yet,  when  properly  understood,  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly simple. 

It  is  our  intention  to  give  full  directions  for  effecting 
this  kind  of  work,  so  that  the  humblest  sign-writer  will 
be  able  to  produce  the  gilding  clear  and  bright  without 
difficulty. 

The  gold  used,  it  need  hardly  be  mentioned,  is  the 
ordinary  gold  leaf. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  mordant 
for  affixing  the  gold  leaf  to  the  glass.  This  is  done  in 
the  following  manner : — Procure  some  fine  isinglass,  and 
place  about  as  much  in  a  tea-cup  as  will  cover  a  six- 
penny piece,  and  then  pour  on  it  about  half  a  cup  full 
of  boiling  water,  which  will  dissolve  the  ieinglass.  Be- 
fore the  water  has  got  cold  add  about  as  much  spirits  of 
wine  as  there  is  water  in  the  cup;  then  strain  the  whole 
through  a  clean  silk  handkerchief,  and  tlie  mordant  is 
ready  for  use.    The  addition  of  the  spirits  of  wine  is 


BURNISHED  GILDING  ON  GLASS.  193 


most  material  as,  without  it,  the  gilding  cannot  be  sat- 
isfactorily accomplished. 

Whatever  the  lettering  that  has  to  be  written  on  the 
glass,  it  must  be  first  set  out  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper, 
and  reversed.  This  paper,  with  the  writing  reversed, 
should  be  fixed  at  the  edges  or  corners  on  to  the  glass 
by  means  of  paste,  the  writing  appearing  backwards. 
The  glass  having  been  thoroughly  cleansed  and  rubbed 
with  a  silk  handkerchief,  the  gilding  may  be  com- 
menced, the  gold  leaf,  of  course,  being  on  the  reverse 
side  to  that  to  which  the  paper  is  attached.  It  is  usual 
to  place  the  glass  in  a  slanting  position  on  an  easel,  the 
lines  of  lettering  not  being  horizontal,  or  reading  from 
left  to  right,  but  perpendicular,  reading  from  top  to 
bottom.  The  mordant  is  put  on, — or,  more  correctly 
perhaps,  flowed  on, — with  a  soft  camel  hair  pencil  of 
large  dimensions,  and  the  gold  leaf  is  lifted  from  the 
cushion  and  placed  on  the  mordant  with  a  tip,  after 
having  been  cut  to  the  required  dimensions.  If  the 
line  of  writing  be  less  than  about  three  inches  in 
height,  it  is  advisable  to  gild  the  whole  line,  without 
paying  any  regard  to  the  shapes  of  the  letters,  so  that 
when  the  line  is  finished,  it  will  present  a  solid  piece 
of  gilding  about  the  same  height  and  length  as  the  let- 
ters, and  nothing  more.  The  first  piece  of  gold  leaf 
should  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  line,  which  is 
the  top  of  the  glass,  and  each  succeeding  piece  below  it, 
the  different  pieces  just  overlapping  each  other.  It  is 
necessary  to  be  particular  in  this  matter,  because  if  the 
pieces  of  gold  do  not  meet  together,  the  interstices  may, 
and  most  probably  will,  show  when  the  work  is  com- 
pleted, and  will  prevent  the  uniformity  of  burnish  which 
it  is  so  desirable  to  attain.  For  letters  of  larger  dimen- 
sions than  three  inches  in  height,  the  gilding  may,  as  a 
general  rule,  be  made  to  cover  each  letter,  leaving  the 
spaces  between  untouched.  When  the  process  of  gild- 
ing is  completed,  these  letters  will  present  but  a  rough 
17 


194        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


resemblance  to  their  general  and  true  shapes,  the  pieces 
of  gold  leaf  being  irregular  in  size,  and  extending  in 
different  directions  over  the  correct  outline  of  the  writ- 
ing. The  beginner  will  probably  endeavor  to  make  the 
gold  leaf  go  too  far,  and  be  too  niggard  of  its  use ;  but  a 
short  experience  will  teach  him  that  the  wisest  economy 
is  to  cover  not  only  the  whole  of  the  letters  with  the 
metallic  leaf,  but  to  carry  it  a  little  beyond  their  bound- 
ary. 

As  soon  as  the  gilding  has  been  completed  thus  far, 
it  should  be  left  to  dry  in  a  warm  room,  or  placed  before 
the  fire,  in  which  case  it  will  be  dry  in  a  few  minutes. 
If  there  are  several  lines  of  lettering,  the  first  line  or 
two  will  probably  be  dry  before  the  last  is  completed. 
There  is  no  difficulty  in  ascertaining  whether  it  is  dry  or 
not,  because  as  it  dries  it  assumes  a  burnished  appear- 
ance, and  presents  a  strong  contrast  to  those  parts  which 
are  still  wet,  where  tlie  gold  is  often  crinkled  up,  and 
always  "  mat,''  or  dead.  When  the  gilding  is  perfectly 
dry  and  bright,  it  should  be  rubbed  over  very  gently 
with  a  piece  of  cotton  wool.  This  will  heighten  the 
burnish  of  the  gold,  and  remove  the  loose  pieces  which 
do  not  adhere  to  the  glass. 

The  work  of  gilding  is  now  but  half  completed.  In 
its  present  stage,  most  likely  every  joining  of  the  gold 
leaf  will  be  visible  on  the  front  of  the  glass,  and  if  the 
work  be  held  up  to  the  light,  innumerable  holes  and 
faulty  places  will  be  discovered  in  the  gilding.  The 
beginner,  however,  need  not  be  discouraged  by  this  re- 
sult, inasmuch  as  it  is  the  common  experience. 

After  the  gilding  has  been  manipulated  as  described, 
a  soft  camel  hair  brush — a  flat  one  is  recommended — 
charged  with  the  isinglass  size  should  be  passed  lightly 
over  the  work ;  but,  of  course,  the  brush  must  not  be 
worked  to  and  fro,  or  it  will  remove  the  gold  leaf.  The 
size  should  be  flowed  on  freely  and  rapidly,  and  if  any 
small  places  have  been  omitted,  no  attempt  should  be 


BURNISHED  GILDING  ON  GLASS. 


195 


made  to  retouch  them  whilst  the  size  is  wet.  When  it 
is  dry,  the  gilding  will  resume  its  brightness. 

In  order  to  complete  the  burnish  of  the  gold,  some 
writers  subject  the  work  to  a  process  which  is,  unfortu- 
nately, attended  with  no  small  risk.  When  it  has  been 
sized,  as  explained  above,  hot  water  is  poured  over  the 
gilding,  and  this  not  only  washes  out  any  little  specs 
which  may  appear  on  the  front  of  the  gold,  but  enhances 
its  brilliancy  considerably.  The  hotter  the  water 
poured  over  the  work,  the  brighter  does  the  gold  leaf 
become.  In  this  respect  the  writer  is  subject  to  a  temp- 
tation which  occasionally  proves  a  source  of  trouble  and 
loss:  for,  of  course,  beyond  certain  degrees  of  heat  the 
water  will  break  the  glass.  This  was  a  very  common 
occurrence  formerly,  but  in  modern  practice  the  hot 
water  bath  is  often  dispensed  with,  and  the  size  coated 
over  the  gilding  is  applied  hot.  This  latter  method  is 
not  quite  so  effective  as  the  former  one,  but  it  has  the  re- 
commendation of  being  safe. 

The  whole  of  the  gilding  has  now  to  be  repeated.  A 
second  layer  of  gold  leaf  over  the  first  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  ensure  a  satisfactory  result.  This  is,  in  the 
truest  sense,  double  gilding."  The  second  coat  of  gold 
is  put  on  with  the  isinglass  size,  the  same  as  the  first ; 
and,  as  it  dries,  the  gilding,  as  it  shows  through  the  front 
of  the  glass  will  present  a  rich  and  finished  appearance. 
The  loose  pieces  of  gold  should  be  removed  as  after  the 
first  coat,  by  means  of  cotton  wool  gently  rubbed  over 
the  work.  Another  coat  of  size  made  hot  may  now  be 
applied,  and  the  gilding  is  ready  to  be  written  upon.  It 
may  be  added  that  the  longer  the  gilding  is  left  on  the 
glass  the  harder  it  becomes.  In  all  cases,  it  is  better  to 
leave  it  on  for  a  day  or  two  before  writing  upon  it,  be- 
cause the  isinglass  does  not  get  thoroughly  hard,  though 
to  all  appearance  it  is  perfectly  dry  in  an  hour  or  two. 
The  affinity  of  gold  leaf  to  glass  is  somewhat  curious. 
If  the  gilding  be  left  untouched  for  two  or  three  months, 


196        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


the  action  of  the  spirits  of  wine  will  cause  the  gold  leaf 
to  adhere  so  firmly  to  the  glass  that  it  will  be  difficult 
to  remove  it  by  washing  it  with  water,  whereas,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  days  after  it  is  laid  on,  it  may  be  readily- 
removed  by  the  slightest  application  of  a  damp  sponge. 

There  are  several  ways  of  transferring  the  outline  of 
the  writing  to  the  gold.  Perhaps  the  most  expeditious 
method  is  to  rub  some  dry  whitening  over  the  front  side 
of  the  writing,  as  set  out  on  the  paper,  place  this  over 
the  gilding,  face  downwards,  then  go  over  the  outline 
of  the  letters  with  a  pointed  stick  or  hard  pencil.  On 
removing  the  paper,  it  will  be  found  that  where  the  let- 
ters have  been  traced  with  the  stick,  the  whitening  has 
marked  the  gold.  Another  method  of  transferring  the 
writing  to  the  gilding  is  to  prick  through  the  outline  of 
the  letters,  and  then,  j)lacing  the  paper  so  perforated  face 
downwards  on  the  glass,  to  pounce  the  back  of  it  with 
whitening,  so  that  the  dust  permeates  through  the  per- 
forations. This  is  a  more  tedious  method  than  that  al- 
ready described,  but  it  is  equally  effective. 

Having  by  either  of  these  modes  of  procedure  pro- 
cured an  outline  of  the  writing  or  design,  the  next  step 
is  to  paint  the  letters  with  a  sable  writing  pencil.  The 
vehicle  invariably  used  for  this  purpose  is  the  ordinary 
Japan  black  used  by  coach  painters.  If,  on  turning  the 
glass  round,  it  should  be  seen  that  the  Japan  black  at  all 
deadens  the  gilding,  or  is  perceptible  in  any  way  on  the 
front  of  the  glass,  another  coat  of  size  should  be  passed 
over  the  work  to  prevent  the  black  from  permeating 
through  the  gold  leaf.  When  the  Japan  has  become 
hard,  the  superfluous  gold  must  be  washed  off  with  a 
sponge  and  warm  water.  The  workman  need  not  be 
particular  about  forming  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  let- 
ters with  neatness,  because  when  the  Japan  is  dry,  the 
edges  may  be  cut  up  sharp  and  true  by  passing  a  small 
chisel  along  a  straight  edge,  so  as  to  trim  the  writing 
and  make  the  tops  and  bottoms  [)erfectly  regular.  All 


BURNISHED  GILDING  ON  GLASS.  197 


the  straight  lines  of  the  letters  maybe  trimmed  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  but  the  curved  ones  must  be  perfected  with 
the  writing  pencil. 

For  gilding  on  embossed  glass,  the  mordant  or  size 
should  be  made  a  little  stronger,  having  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  isinglass  in  its  composition,  or  it  will  be  found 
that  the  gold  leaf  will  not  adhere  readily  to  the  em- 
bossed portions  of  the  glass.  It  should  be  stated  that 
embossed  letters  are  produced  in  just  the  same  way  as 
when  the  glass  is  intended  to  be  obscured,  except  that 
the  fluoric  acid  need  not  be  left  on  for  so  long  a  time, 
the  mere  deadening  of  the  surface  being  all  that  is  re- 
quired to  give  the  effect  of  mat  gold. 

The  softened  colored  thicknesses  added  to  the  letters 
are  effected  with  the  ordinary  oil  colors  thinned  with 
boiled  oil  and  turpentine,  the  latter  being  used  sparing- 
ly. Three  or  more  tints  are  generally  mixed  on  the 
palette,  with  a  separate  pencil  to  each,  and  these  tints 
are  softened  with  a  larger  sable  pencil,  and  the  outer  edges 
are  cut  up  with  a  pointed  stick  guided  by  a  straight 
edge,  whilst  the  color  is  wet,  and  the  superfluous  color 
is  wiped  off  with  a  piece  of  rag.  By  this  means  a 
sharpness  of  outline  is  obtained  which  the  most  skilful 
writer  would  fail  to  get  by  the  mere  use  of  the  pencil. 
The  shadow  is  put  on  as  soon  as  the  thickness  is  dry, 
and  not  being  softened  down,  quick  drying  colors  may 
be  employed. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL  AND  OTHER  ERRORS. 

The  sign-writer  need  not  necessarily  be  highly  edu- 
cated, though,  of  course,  in  this,  as  in  other  tilings,  the 
educated  man  has  many  advantages  over  the  illiterate. 
The  great  requisite  for  a  writer  is,  first  and  chiefly,  a 
knowledge  of  spelling,  and  secondly,  some  idea  of  punc- 
tuation. Beyond  this,  so  far  as  his  vocation  is  con- 
cerned, he  need  not  go.  That  many  writers  who  are 
able  to  form  letters  and  words  symmetrically  and  with 
freedom  are  not  proficient  in  these  elementary  require- 
ments, is  evident  by  the  examples  that  are  occasionally 
to  be  seen  in  the  principal  thoroughfares.  It  is  true  that 
positively  bad  spelling  is  not  a  common  occurrence  on  a 
house  front,  sign,  or  show-board  of  any  pretensions ;  but 
instances  of  mis-spelt  words  placed  in  prominent  posi- 
tions on  the  faQades  of  attractive  buildings  are  too  com- 
monly met  with. 

We  have,  therefore,  thought  that,  in  the  few  closing 
pages,  we  could  not  do  better  than  touch  briefly  upon  some 
of  the  common  mistakes  which  sign-writers  commit, 
either  through  a  defective  knowledge  of  orthography,  or, 
possibly,  in  some  cases  from  thoughtlessness.  From  the 
largeness  of  this  theme — upon  which  many  chapters 
might  be  written — and  the  limited  space  at  command, 
the  examples  we  are  enabled  to  give  must  necessarily  be 
somewhat  brief  and  discursive. 

And  first,  as  regards  bad  spelling,  it  was  only  the 
other  day  we  saw  written,  in  large  letters,  on  a  princi- 
pal business  house  in  the  city,  the  following  announce- 
ment : — 
198 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL  AND  OTHER  ERRORS.  199 


WHOLESALE  STATIONARY  WAREHOUSE. 

STATIONERY  being,  of  course,  the  word  intended.  Tliia 
is  a  very  common  error  in  sign-writing.  The  next  ex- 
ample, though  not  so  common  as  the  foregoing,  is  far 
more  singular.  On  a  house  in  John  street,  Clerken- 
well,  not  long  since,  the  following  might  be  seen  : — 

DYING  DONE  HERE. 

The  writer  of  this  laconic  sentence,  no  doubt  expressed 
a  truth,  but  not  that  which  he  really  ought  to  have  con- 
veyed. That  persons  died  on  the  premises,  as  they  do 
elsewhere,  might  be  quite  true.  And  that  is  just  what 
he  took  the  pains  to  inform  the  public,  though,  of  course, 
he  was  engaged  to  proclaim  to  them  that  dyeing  was 
the  particular  trade  carried  on  there.  Then,  we  have 
seen  chops  and  stakes,  instead  of  chops  and  steaks  • 
and,  more  singular  still,  the  final  word  spelt  staks. 
On  the  window  blinds  of  public-houses,  one  sometimes 
sees  SMOKEING  room,  the  e'^  being  superfluous.  Sim- 
ilarly, MANGLING  is  sometimes  erroneously  rendered 

MANGLEING  ;  BAKING,  BAKEING,  and  SO  On. 

The  word  parlour  is  often  spelt  parlor,  and  the 
"  u"  is  dropped  in  many  similar  instances,  such  as  COL- 
OR, LABOR,  etc.  Americans  generally  omit  the  "  u  in 
these  words,  and  the  practice  is  becoming  somewhat  fre- 
quent in  England.*  It  may,  however,  be  laid  down 
broadly,  that  no  departure  should  be  made  from  the  ac- 
cepted method  of  spelling  a  word,  inasmuch  as  new- 
fangled notions,  when  carried  out  in  practice,  challenge 
attention  and  cause  disputes,  especially  in  the  case  of 
painted  letters,  which,  owing  to  the  prominence,  so  easily 
catch  the  eye. 

We  remember  an  instance  in  which  a  sign-writer  had 


^  From  the  large  and  rapidly  increasing  circulation  of  Web- 
ster's Dictionary  in  that  country. 


200        SIGN  WEITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


to  paint  on  the  door-post  of  a  doctor's  residence  the 
words  visiTOEs'  BELL,  and  the  workman,  having  been 
reading  some  of  the  late  Mr.  Charles  Dickens's  works, 
rendered  the  first  word  as  the  great  novelist  himself  was 
in  the  habit  of  spelling  it,  substituting  e  "  for  "  o  in 
Visitors.  This  spelling  may  pass  unnoticed  in  a  book 
printed  in  brevier  or  long  primer,  but  when  the  visiter 
is  made  conspicuous  by  the  lettering  of  the  writer,  there 
is  a  degree  of  singularity  about  the  word  which  is  abso- 
lutely puzzling.  It  may  be  that  Dickens  was  perfectly 
right  in  his  peculiar  spelling  of  the  word,  and  that  by 
and  by  it  may  become  general,  but  until  it  does  we  would 
advise  the  writer  to  avoid  taking  any  such  liberty  with 
what  is,  with  perhaps  an  exception  here  and  there,  ac- 
cepted as  correct,  and  almost  always  adopted. 

Speaking  of  Mr.  Dickens  recalls  another  speciality  of 
his,  which  it  is  as  well  to  caution  the  sign-writer  against. 
It  is  that  of  rendering  the  plural  of  Miss  by  adding  "s" 
to  the  end  of  the  surname.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  two 
young  ladies  of  the  name  of  Brown,  he  would  write, 
*^The  Miss  Browns,''  instead  of'"  The  Misses  Brown." 
If  a  painter  were  required  to  write  up,  "  Miss  Brown's 
Academy,"  he  should  write  it  as  we  have  just  written 
it ;  but  if  there  were  more  than  one  Miss  Brown  he 
might  be  puzzled  to  know  how  to  render  it  properly. 
If  he  followed  Mr.  Dickens's  plan,  he  would  make  it, 
"The  Miss  Browns'  Academy,"  whereas  the  proper  way 
would  be  to  render  it  "The  Misses  Brown's  Academy." 
To  put  this  matter  more  forcibly,  take  the  case  of  the 
masculine  instead  of  the  feminine.  If,  for  instance, 
there  are  three  brothers  named  Brown  in  partnership 
engaged  in  trade,  who  would  think  of  addressing  them 
as  the  Mr.  Browns  ?  The  Messrs.  Brown  is  the  proper 
designation,  and  yet  on  the  principle  adopted  by  Dickens 
they  should  be  addressed  the  other  way. 

Amongst  other  mis-spelt  words,  we  have  noticed 

CHEESEMONGER  Spclt  CHEESMONGER  ;  CARPETS  PLAN- 
NED, rendered  carpets  planed. 


OKTHOGRAPHICAL  AND  OTHER  ERRORS.  201 


If  there  is  one  thing  more  than  another  in  which  a 
sign-writer  is  at  sea,  it  is  tlie  matter  of  apostrophes. 
Where  they  ought  to  be  they  are  omitted,  and  where 
they  ought  not  to  be,  there  they  are.  And  yet  what  is 
simpler  to  understand  just  where  they  should  be,  and  to 
place  them  there  ?  The  rules  given  for  the  correct  use 
of  the  apostrophe  are  so  simple  that  it  is  singular  failure 
in  regard  to  them  should  be  so  often  exhibited. 
Amongst  other  instances,  we  have  seen  Rose  Villas', 
the  apostrophe  being  quite  unnecessary.  Then  we  have 
seen  Jones  &  Co.,  Draper's — the  apostrophe  being 
again  superfluous.  Ladies  School  affords  another  ex- 
ample, there  being  no  apostrophe  after  the  "  s,''  where 
it  is  required.  ^'  Mens'  Boots  "  and  "  Gentlemens' 
Hair  Dressed."  In  these  instances  the  apostrophe  is 
misplaced  after  ^^s,"  which  it  should  precede.  Then  we 
have  seen  Brown's  (late  Jones)  Tea  Establishment  ; 
whereas  it  should  be  (late  Jones's),  or  (late  Jones'), 
either  of  which  is  correct.  Another  example  of  a  super- 
fluous apostrophe  is  shown  by  the  following  : — Grenier 
&  Son's,  Grocers.  It  would  be  correct  to  put  the 
apostrophe  in  the  case  of  Grenier  &  Son's  Grocery 
Stores. 

In  punctuation  some  very  strange  things  are  occasion- 
ally perpetrated.  The  sign-writer  who  disdains  punc- 
tuation, and  omits  "  points  "  of  every  description,  is  far 
wiser  than  he  who,  fancying  he  has  a  knowledge  of  the 
art,  introduces  commas  and  full  points  in  all  sorts  of 
queer  places.  It  is  not  needful  for  the  sign-writer  to 
use  any  points  beyond  those  of  the  comma  and  period, 
except  in  very  rare  instances.  But  these  ought  always 
to  be  used  in  their  proper  places.  How  often  does  one 
see  a  comma  introduced  between  a  Christian  and  sur- 
name, as,  for  instance,  Henry,  Robinson;  or  a  full 
point  similarly  misused,  as  Thomas.  Jones.  We  have 
lately  noticed  on  a  facia,  otherwise  excellently  written, 
William.  B.  Jones,  the  point  after  William  being 


202  SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


quite  out  of  place.  When  the  initial  of  a  name  is  used, 
or  the  name  is  shortened,  as  Wm.  B.  Jones,  the  point  is 
adopted  in  both  instances.  Some  sign-writers  have  such 
a  love  for  points  that  they  will  insert  a  period  between 
all  the  words,  and  then,  perhaps,  wind  up  at  the  end 
with  a  comma ! 

All  these  idiosyncrasies  are  not,  however,  always  the 
fault  of  the  workman.  Employers  are  occasionally 
ignorant  or  eccentric,  and  they  insist  upon  their  peculiar 
crotchets  being  carried  out  to  the  letter.  As  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  former,  we  may  cite  a  case  which  came 
within  our  knowledge.  A  publican  engaged  a  sign- 
writer  to  do  certain  lettering  on  his  establishment,  and, 
having  seen  the  writing  when  it  was  set  out,  insisted 
that  "  it  wouldn't  do  for  him,"  asking  the  writer  how 
he  spelt  brandy  ?  "  B-r-a-n-d-y,"  answered  the  work- 
man. Very  well,  then  B-r-a-n-d-y-s  must  be  bran- 
dies,''  triumphantly   exclaimed  the  obtuse  landlord. 

But,"  the  writer  observed,  it  is  always  spelt  i-e-s." 
"  Well,  if  everybody  else  has  it  wrong,  that's  no  reason 
why  I  should,"  muttered  Boniface,  with  an  oath,  adding 
that,  if  the  work  was  not  done  as  he  wished,  he  would 
send  for  a  writer  "  who  had  learnt  to  spell !  " 

The  sign-writer  is,  as  we  have  said,  not  only  at  the 
mercy  of  the  ignorant,  but  now  and  then  has  to  fight 
against,  or  favor,  as  the  case  may  be,  eccentricity.  A 
marine  artist  of  more  than  local  celebrity,  formerly  re- 
siding in  Brighton,  but  now  deceased,  always  had  paint- 
ed  in  legible  characters  on  the  street-door  of  his  studio, 
in  one  of  the  turnings  leading  out  of  the  Western  Road, 
the  words  No.  Wun;  meaning.  No.  1.  The  artist,  who 
was  a  genial  fellow,  and  not  usually  crotchety,  had  in 
this  single  instance  become  enamored  of  Pitman's  phon- 
otoepy  ;  but  so  far  from  "  No.  Wun  "  enlightening  the 
public,  it  was  a  constant  source  of  conjecture  and  bewil- 
derment. 

Then,  there  are  other  things  perpetrated  by  sign-wri- 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL  AND  OTHER  ERRORS.  203 


ters  for  which  they  are  not  altogether  responsible.  If 
a  tradesman  who  engages  a  writer  is  incapable  of  cor- 
rectly stating  what  he  wishes  written  regarding  his  own 
trade,  it  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  the  writer  will  be 
much  better.  For  instance,  since  the  velocipede  mania 
has  set  in,  a  maker  of,  or  dealer  in  velocipedes,  in  the 
Waterloo  Road,  has  had  the  following  painted  over  his 

shop — TWO  AND  THREE  WHEELED  BYCICLES  ON  HIRE. 

It  can  hardly  be  expected  but  that,  in  such  a  case,  the 
sign-writer  would  follow  his  instructions  literally,  quite 
unconscious  of  the  absurdity  of  the  announcement. 

Want  of  skill  in  his  vocation  now  and  then  leads  the 
sign-writer  to  do  some  funny  things.  Unable,  perhaps, 
through  want  of  sufficient  practice,  to  judge  of  the  num- 
ber of  letters  which  he  can  get  into  a  given  space,  he 
will  resort  to  all  sorts  of  curious  shifts  to  atone  for  this 
deficiency.  It  is  a  common  joke  related  of  a  country 
writer — we  do  not,  of  course,  vouch  for  the  accuracy  of 
the  story — that  he  had  to  write  on  a  wooden  rail,  in  a 
village  churchyard,  the  oft-repeated  line — 

A  VIRTUOUS  WOMAN  IS  A  CROWN  TO  HER  HUSBAND, 

but  finding  that  the  length  of  the  rail  would  not  admit 
of  the  whole  inscription  being  carried  out  in  the  propor- 
tion in  which  he  had  commenced  the  lettering,  he  exer- 
cised his  inventive  faculties,  and,  remeiiibering  that  5s. 
was  a  crown,  he  rendered  the  motto  in  this  fashion  : — • 

A  VIRTUOUS  WOMAN  IS  A  OS.  TO  HER  HUSBAND. 

Another  countryman — it  is  as  well  to  attribute  the  joke 
to  this  source — was  engaged  to  write  on  the  outer  wall 
of  a  skittle  alley,  in  bold  letters,  the  words : — • 

THIS  IS  THE  SPOT  FOR  SKITTLES. 

The  landlord  was  somewhat  startled  when  the  work  was 
finished  to  find  it  rendered  thus : — 

THIS  IS  THE  %  FOR  SKITTLF^. 


204        SIGN  WRITING  AND  GLASS  EMBOSSING. 


A  short  distance  away,  the  large  black  spot  presented  the 
appearance  of  a  hole  knocked  through  the  flint  wall,  and 
so  the  public,  not  unnaturally,  read  the  line  as,  "  This  is 
the  hole  for  skittles."  Boniface  could  not  stand  tliis,  and 
so  the  writing  was  obliterated,  and  the  inexperienced 
limner  tried  his  hand  afresh, — let  us  hope  with  a  more 
satisfactory  result. 

Want  of  skill  is  often  apparent  in  the  distances  be- 
tween the  letters.  Thus,  Adam,  strong  boot-maker, 
has  been  rendered  by  the  bad  adjustment  and  the  omis- 
sion of  the  comma, — A  DAM  strong  boot  maker. 
And,  No  damaged  goods  has  figured  as — No  dam 

AGED  GOODS. 

As  regards  giving  prominence  to  the  most  important 
words,  also,  a  writer  often  fails.  Words  that  should  be 
large  are  painted  small,  whilst  those  of  small  import  are 
rendered  large.  At  the  Vauxhall  Railway  Station  there 
is  a  good  example  of  this.  The  following  words  are 
painted  on  a  board  : — Passengers  are  requested  not  to 
pass  beyond  this  point.  There  are  four  large  lines, 
which  are  passengers,  requested,  pass  beyond,  and 
POINT,  the  last  being  the  largest  of  all.  The  other 
words  are  painted  very  small.  At  a  short  distance  the 
request  reads  just  the  opposite  of  what  is  intended,  the 
NOT  being  almost  imperceptible ;  whereas  the  words 
NOT  TO  pass. should  form  the  principal  line  on  the 
board,  as  they  really  contain  the  gist  of  the  announce- 
ment. 


APPENDIX, 


WHITELEAD* 

The  production  of  whitelead  until  within  a  comparatively 
recent  date  was  confined,  almost  exclusively,  to  Holland,  and 
the  Dutch  system  of  corroding  is  recognized  as  the  best.  Its 
manufacture  was  first  introduced,  to  any  extent,  into  this  coun- 
try at  the  works  of  Mr.  John  Harrison,  Philadelphia,  the  foun- 
der of  the  present  well-known  firm  of  Harrison  Brothers  &  Co., 
manufacturing  chemists,  about  the  year  1806,  though  a  Mr. 
Wetherill  of  that  city  had  been  successful  in  some  practical 
experiments  before  that  time. 

The  pig  lead  is  melted  in  large  iron  pots,  and  from  them  the 
molten  metal  is  run  into  a  series  of  moulds,  revolving  on  an 
endless  chain.  The  lead  is  thus  cast  into  what  are  called 
buckles,  weighing  about  a  pound  each,  flat  and  round  and 
shaped  like  a  grate  to  give  a  greater  surface  for  the  chemical 
action  to  which  they  are  to  be  subjected.  These  buckles  are  placed 
in  earthen  pots,  but  kept  from  contact  with  the  acetic  acid  with 
which  the  latter  are  charged,  by  means  of  projections  made 
purposely  in  the  pots,  and  upon  which  the  buckles  rest.  The 
pots  are  then  stacked  up  in  what  are  known  as  beds — large 
frame  structures,  roofed  in  and  provided  with  double  walls — to 
the  number  of  ten  thousand  or  more.  They  are  placed  in  layers 
with  boards  and  tan  between  each,  and  piled  up  to  the  height 
of  the  building,  the  bottom  of  which  and  spaces  between  the 
walls  all  being  padded  with  tan  bark,  till  the  whole  is  tightly 
shut  in  and  the  contents  of  the  pots  are  left  to  the  silent  action 
of  chemical  laws.  The  tan  generates  heat,  makes  an  oxide  of 
the  lead  and  vaporizes  the  acid,  and  with  the  carbonic  acid  formed 
in  the  decomposition  of  the  tan,  gradually  reduces  the  metal  to 
a  beautiful  snow-white  substance.  This  result  is  only  attained 
after  an  interval  of  ten  to  fourteen  weeks,  when,  the  beds  being 
opened,  the  buckles  are  found  thus  transformed  into  carbonate 
of  lead,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  into  a  hydrated  carbonate. 


*  Prepared  by  David  C.  Llojd. 
18  206 


206 


APPENDIX. 


From  the  beds  it  is  taken  to  long-  revolving  screens,  through 
the  meshes  of  which  it  falls  into  bins  prepared  for  its  reception, 
and  any  imcorroded  particles  of  metal  are  separated  and  re- 
turned to  the  melting  caldrons.  The  pots  on  being  taken  out 
contain  no  acid,  and  the  lead  has  increased  considerably  in  bulk 
and  weight.  By  day  and  night,  chemistry,  that  mysterious  agent, 
lias  silently  been  doing  its  appointed  task  and  producing  by  a 
strange  and  unseen  process  this  interesting  and  beautiful  result. 

'I'he  lead,  after  havhig  passed  through  the  separating  screens, 
is  first  thoroughly  washed  to  deprive  it  of  any  free  acetic  acid, 
stain,  or  impurities,  and  is  then  ground  in  water  between  heavy 
burr-stone  mills  into  a  fine  pulpy  mass;  this  is  then  gathered 
and  pumped  upon  drying  pans  in  the  kiln  house.  Deprived  by 
this  means  of  its  water,  the  product  of  these  manifold  processes 
becomes  the  pure  dry  whitelead  of  commerce. 

This  dry  or  carbonate  of  lead  is  then  kneaded  with  a  suitable 
quantity  of  linseed  oil,  generally  in  the  proportion  of  eight 
pounds  of  oil  to  one  hundred  of  lead,  by  means  of  what  are 
called  machine  mixers,  and,  on  being  thoroughly  mixed,  the 
pasty  mass  descends  through  hoppers  provided  for  the  purpose, 
on  to  a  lower  floor  of  the  mill  house,  and  is  there,  in  the  best 
establishments,  passed  through  a  first  mill,  which  again  passes 
or  feeds  it  into  another,  and,  after  grinding  there,  it  is  discharged 
into  large  tubs,  where  it  should  remain  some  time  before  pack- 
ing into  kegs  or  cans  for  the  trade. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  number  of  so-called  whitelead 
manufacturers  existing  in  the  United  States,  the  majority  have 
no  real  claims  to  be  called  such,  and  are  so  in  name  only.  Its 
production  constitutes  a  most  important  branch  of  industry ; 
but  one,  which,  owing  to  the  large  capital  requisite  and  the 
length  of  time  required  before  even  the  finished  article  can  yield 
return,  only  a  few  large  firms  are  engaged  in  it.  Much  interest 
is  attached  to  the  various  processes  we  have  described,  but  there 
is  still  a  very  general  ignorance  of  the  subject. 

The  only  actual  corroders  of  lead,  doing  business  in  New  York, 
given  not  in  order  of  precedence,  but  alphabetically,  are  : — 

Battelle  &  Renwick,  The  Atlantic  Whitelead  Co., 

Hall,  Bradley  &  Co.,  The  Brooklyn 

Harrison  Brotliers  &  Co.,       The  Union  "  " 

J.  Jewett  &  Sons. 

In  Philadelphia : — 

Harrison  Brothers  &  Co.,  John  T.  Lewis  &  Brothers, 

Wetherill  &  Brother. 

Boston,  Pittsburg,  Baltimore,  and  St.  Louis  and  other  large 


APPENDIX. 


207 


Cities,  each  contains  one  or  more  firms  who  are  actual  cor- 
roders. 

There  is  much  rivalry  as  to  the  merits  and  demerits  of  those 
various  brands ;  but  it  is  more  among  the  consumers  than  the 
corroders  themselves.  The  latter  are,  as  a  class,  conservative, 
and  look  quietly  on,  fully  satisfied  that  there  is  room  enough  for 
all.  The  former  vaunt  the  particular  brand  they  have  been 
accustomed  to  use  and  constitute  themselves  its  zealous  cham- 
pions, although  they  know  nothing,  probably  having  never  tried 
the  merits  of  the  others. 

The  truth  is  that  prejudice  has  more  to  do  with  this  favorit 
ism  than  merit.  There  may  be  slight  differences  in  mode  of 
preparation,  washing,  and  grinding ;  but  they  are  all  good ;  and 
all,  as  we  have  said,  undoubtedly  pure,  so  that  the  consumer 
is  safe  in  selecting  either  make. 

One  brand  will  have  the  preference  and  almost  exclusive  sale 
in  one  section  of  the  country  and  be  almost  unknown  in  an- 
other. 'J'he  oldest  and  among  the  most  widely  distributed  is 
that  of  Harrison  Brothers  ^  Co.,  and  we  have  been  told,  it  is 
usual  with  some  parties,  who  are  about  having  painting  done 
and  are  particular  as  to  the  work,  to  insert  in  their  contracts 
that  only  this  brand  of  lead  shall  be  employed ;  but  the  prefer- 
ence so  often  given  to  it  is  not  due  to  a  degree  of  purity  over  the 
others,  as  all  are  pure ;  but  merely  to  the  extreme  and  peculiar 
care  given  to  it  while  passing  through  the  various  stages  of 
washing,  drying,  grinding,  and  preparing  for  the  market,  the 
result  of  an  experience  of  over  sixti/  years  devoted  to  the  busi- 
ness. From  what  we  have  said  it  will  be  apparent  to  procure 
good  work  and  satisfactory  results  from  the  use  of  whitelead  it 
is  of  the  first  importance  that  material  known  to  be  good  should 
be  employed.  The  painter  should,  for  his  own  sake,  purchase 
nothing  else,  and  the  owner  of  property  should,  for  the  same 
reasons,  permit  this  only  to  be  used  upon  his  work.  If  lead  is 
to  be  employed  let  those  requiring  painting  done  stipulate,  for 
their  own  protection,  either  by  bargain  or  contract,  what  the 
brand  shall  be,  and  thus  guard  against  the  employment  of  a  pig- 
ment, which,  by  being  perhaps  only  second  rate,  may  cause  the 
work  speedily  to  require  re-doing.  In  conclusion,  we  may  add 
that  all  strictly  pure  leads  are  about  the  same  in  price,  and  if  not 
kept  in  stock  by  local  dealers,  can  always  be  procured  by  such, 
so  ihat  there  is  no  reason  why  any  one  should  be  restricted  to 
any  particular  brand  against  his  wish  or  taste. 


SCKIPT. 


MONASTIC  CONDENSED. 


>BCDEFGH1JK 
LMl(0PQ^STUVWXYZ 
1234567890 

MONASTIC. 

12345  6' 7890 


ITALIC  GOTHIC. 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP 
QRSTUVWXYZ 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuuwxyz 


CONDENSED. 


iKDEf&HIJIl 


GOTHIC  CONDENSED. 


abcdefghijltliiinopqistuviiixiiz 
l2345e/890 
ABCDEFGHIJKLtHNOPQRSTUVWn; 


OLD  STYLE. 


ABCDEFGHIJK 
LMNOPQ 

RSTU VWXYZ 
1234567890 

CELTIC. 

ABCDEF 
GHIJKLMN 

OPQRS 
TUVWXYZ 
1234567890 


4 


FEltSPECTl  V  K. 


MJB(&  BMW 


PKBSPKCTIVE  ORNAMENTED), 


GOTHIC  DOUBLE  SHADED. 


5 


OTINAMKNTEB. 


ANTiaUE  OKNAMKNTED. 


ORNAMENTED. 


&  mil  ML  MM 


ROTTND  SHADED. 


iiiiiPi 
iiJiiii 
iiP|iiTi 


IONIC  SHADED. 


J§1  ' 


ORNAMENTED. 


jsciii® 


GOTHIC  SHADEn. 


* 


if- 


I 


ORNAMENTED. 


II 


Y  WXT 


BROADGAUOE  OKNATE. 


11 


I 


ORNAMENTED. 


OBNAMENTED. 


FOHI 


OPOR 


TU¥W 

MY 


12 


GOTHIC  CONDENSED  SHADED. 


TUSCAN  ANTIQUE  SHADED, 


14 


MODERN  TEXT 


If  w 


15 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

'  FAOS 

209 


210 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Imitation  of  raised  letters  97 

Imitation  of  sunk  letters  "112 

Iiidiitu  red  136 

Indigo  138 

Intense  blue  137 

Introductory  9 

Isinglass  size  175 

Italic  capitals  43 

Italic,  perspective  127 

Ivory  black  131 

Joined  letters  52 

Lake  134 

Lattn  letters  89 

Lead,  white  129 

Letter,  scroll  48 

Letters,  classes  of  42 

Letters,  how  formed  35 

Letters  in  perspective  116 

Letters,  slanting  49 

L,  formation  of  71 

Madder,  rose  136 

Medieoval  style  75 

M,  formation  of  58,  67 

Minuscules  82 

Missal  capitals  87 

Mordants  for  gilding....  167 

Modern  type  74 

N,  formation  of.  67 

Normal  alphabets  54 

Numerals  50,52 

Object  in  writing  36 

Ochre,  yellow  138 

Old  English  „  48 

Old-faced  type  76 

Open  letters  66 

Origin  of  signs  10 

Ornamental  alphabets  78 

Ornamental  writing  48 

Orthographical  errors  198 

Over-elaboration  95 

Pencils  145 

Perspective  italic  127 

Perspective,  letters  in  115 

Perspicuity  50 

Primary  colors  1 10 

Primitive  alphabet  86 

Proportion  of  letters  64 

Prussian  blue  137 

Punctuation  201 

Purple  brown  136 

Q,  formation  of.  72 

Raised  letters  97 

Raw  sienna  138 

Red,  Indian    1".6 

Eelievo  decoration  105 


PAOB 

R,  formation  of  70 

Roman  capitals  43 

Roman  letters  89 

Rose  madder  136 

Rule  for  thick  strokes  68 

Rule  of  Durer  64 

Sau-seriff  capitals  43 

Scroll  letter  48 

Sculpturing  glass  176 

Seriflffl  57 

Setting  out  the  writing  42 

S,  formation  of.  59 

Shade  141 

Shadows  97 

Sienna  ^  138 

Sign  boarding  84 

Sign-writer  9 

Sign,  origin  of.  10 

Sizes  of  glass  171 

Slanting  letters  49,  72 

Solids,  representation  of  107 

Squares,  letters  formed  in  66 

Straight  writing  43 

Sunk  letters  112 

Symbol  and  67 

Symbol  for  and  52 

"  Teasing"  144 

Thicknesses  97 

Thick  strokes,  rule  for  58 

Thinning  139 

Tint  141 

Type,  ancient  74 

Type,  modern  74 

Type,  old-faced  76 

Ultramarine  137 

Uniformity  38 

Vandyke  brown  138 

Varieties  of  alphabets  54 

Vegetable  black  132 

Vermilion  132 

White,  floke  130 

White  le  Ml   129 

White,  zinc  130 

Whittock  on  letters  66 

Words  mis-spelt  ,200 

Writing  35 

Writing  in  curves  46 

Writing,  ornamental  48 

Writing,  setting  out  the  42 

Writing,  straight  43 

Wyatt  on  ornamenting  79 

Yellow,  chrome  138 

Yellow  ochre  138 

Zinc  white  130 

&,  formation  of.  6" 


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AMATEUR  MECHANICS'  WORKSHOP: 

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BARR. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Combustion  of  Coal: 
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also  a  System  of  Bridge  Building,  with  Bills,  Estimates  of  Cost,  and 
valuable  Tables.  Illustrated  by  forty-four  plates,  comprising  ^earlv 
200  figures.  By  William  E.  Bell,  Architect  and  Practical  Builder. 
8vo.  ^5.00 

BEMROSE. — Fret-Cutting  and  Perforated  Carving: 

With  fifty-three  practical  illustrations.  By  W.  Bemrose,  Jr.  i  vol 
quarto  ^3.00 

BEMROSE.— Manual  of  Buhl-work  and  Marquetry: 

With  Practical  Instructions  for  Learners,  and  ninety  colored  designs- 
By  W.  Bemrose,  Jr.    i  vol.  quarto         ....  ^3.00 

BEMROSE.— Manual  of  Wood  Carving: 

With  Practical  Illustrations  for  Learners  of  the  Art,  and  Original  and 
Selected  Designs.  By  William  Bemrose,  Jr.  With  an  Intro- 
duction by  Llewellyn  Jewitt,  F.  S.  A.,  etc.  With  128  illustra- 
tions, 4to.  ^3.oc 

BILLINGS.— Tobacco : 

Its  History,  Variety,  Culture,  Manufacture,  Commerce,  and  Various 
Modes  of  Use.  By  E.  R.  Billings.  Illustrated  by  nearly  200 
engravings.    8vo.     ........  $3'O0 

BIRD. — The  American  Practical  Dyers'  Companion: 

Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Principal  Dye-Stuffs  and  Chemicals 
used  in  Dyeing,  their  Natures  and  Uses;  Mordants,  and  How  Made; 
with  the  best  American,  English,  French  and  German  processes  for 
Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Silk,  Wool,  Cotton,  Linen,  Flannel,  Felt, 
Dress  Goods,  Mixed  and  Hosiery  Yarns,  Feathers,  Grass,  Felt,  Fur, 
Wool,  and  Straw  Hats,  Jute  Yarn,  Vegetable  Ivory,  Mats,  Skins, 
Furs,  Leather,  etc.,  etc.  By  Wood,  Aniline,  and  other  Processes, 
together  with  Remarks  on  Finishing  Agents,  and  Instructions  in  the 
Finishing  of  Fabrics,  Substitutes  for  Indigo,  Water- Proofing  of 
Materials,  Tests  and  Purification  of  Water,  Manufacture  of  Aniline 
and  other  New  Dye  Wares,  Harmonizing  Colors,  etc.,  etc. ;  embrac- 
ing in  all  over  800  Receipts  for  Colors  and  Shades,  accojnpanied  by 
170  Dyed  Samples  of  Raw  Materials  and  Fabrics.  By  F.  J.  Bird, 
Practical  Dyer,  Author  of  "  The  Dyers'  Hand-Book,"    8vo.  $10.00 

i3LINN. — A  Practical  Workshop  Companion  for  Tin,  Sheet- 
Iron,  and  Copper-plate  Workers  : 
Containing  Rules  for  describing  various  kinds  of  Patterns  used  by 
Tin,  Sheet-Iron  and  Copper- plate  Workers;  Practical  Geometry; 
Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids ;  Tables  of  the  Weights  of 
Metals,  Lead-pipe,  etc. ;  Tables  of  Areas  and  Circumferencef 
of  Circles;  Japan,  Varnishes,  Lackers,  Cements,  Compositions,  etc., 
etc.  By  Leroy  J.  Blinn,  Master  Mechanic,  With  over  One 
Hundred  Illustrations.    »<?mo.  #2.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


5 


aOOTH. — Marble  Worker's  Manual : 

Containing  Practical  Information  respecting  Marbles  in  general,  theit 
Cutting,  Working  and  Polishing ;  Veneering  of  Marble  ;  Mosaics ; 
Composition  and  Use  of  Artificial  Marble,  Stuccos,  Cements,  Receipts, 
Secrets,  etc.,  etc.  Translated  from  the  French  by  M.  L.  Booth. 
With  an  Appendix  concerning  American  Marbles.  i2mo.,  cloth  ^1.50 
BOOTH  and  MORFIT.— The  Encyclopaedia  of  Chemistry, 
Practical  and  Theoretical : 
Embracing  its  application  to  the  Arts,  Metallurgy,  Mineralogy, 
Geology,  Medicine  and  Pharmacy.  By  James  C.  Booth,  Melter 
and  Refiner  in  the  United  States  Mint,  Professor  of  Applied  Chem- 
istry in  the  Franklin  Institute,  etc.,  assisted  by  Campbell  Morfit, 
author  of  "  Chemical  Manipulations,"  etc.  Seventh  Edition.  Com- 
plete in  one  volume,  royal  8vo.,  978  pages,  with  numerous  wood-cuts 
and  other  illustrations  $5-^^ 

BRAM WELL.— The  Wool  Carder's  Vade-Mecum, 

A  Complete  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Carding  Textde  Fabrics.  By  W» 
C.  Bramv^ell.    Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated. 

Pp.  400.    i2mo  $2.50 

BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  oa  Animal  and  Vegetable 
Fats  and  Oils  : 

Comprising  both  Fixed  and  Volatile  Oils  their  Physical  and  Chemi- 
cal Properties  and  Uses,  the  Manner  of  Extracting  and  Refining 
them,  and  Practical  Rules  for  Testing  them  ;  as  well  as  the  Manu- 
facture of  Artificial  Butter,  Lubricants,  including  Mineral  Lubricating 
Oils,  etK:.,  and  on  Ozokerite.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of 
Drs.  Karl  Schaedler,  G.  W.  Askinson,  and  Richard  BruNxNer, 
with  Additions  and  Lists  of  American  Patents  relating  to  the  Extrac- 
tion, Rendering,  Refining,  Decomposing,  and  Bleaching  of  Fats  and 
Oils.    By  William  T.  Brannt.    Illustrated  by  244  engravings, 

739  pages.    Svo  ^7.50 

BRANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Soap 
and  Candles  : 

Based  upon  the  most  Recent  Experiences  in  the  Practice  and  Science  ; 
comprising  the  Chemistry,  Raw  Materials,  Machinerv.  and  Utensils 
and  Various  Processes  of  Manufacture,  including  a  great  variety  of 
formulas.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Dr.  C.  Deite,  A. 
Engelhardt,  Dr.  C.  Schaedler  and  others;  with  additions  and  lists 
of  American  Patents  relating  to  these  subjects.  By  Wm.  T.  Brannt. 
Illustrated  by  163  engravings.    677  pages.    Svo.     ,       .       ^7 .50 

BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Raw  Materials  and  the 
Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Alcohol,  and  the  Prepara- 
tion of  Alcoholic  Liquors,  Liqueurs,  Cordials,  Bitters,  etc. : 
Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Dr.  K.  Stammer,  I  )r.  F.  Eisner, 
and  E.  Schubert.    By  Wm.  T.  Brannt.    Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravings.    i2mo.         .       .       «       .       .       .       .  ^2.50 


6 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


8RANNT— WAHL.— The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book: 

Containing  several  thousand  Receipts  covering  the  latest,  most  im 
portant,  and  most  useful  discoveries  in  Chemical  Technology,  and 
their  Practical  Application  in  the  Arts  and  the  Industries.  Edited 
chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs.  Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintze,  Mier. 
zinski,  Jacobsen,  Keller,  and  Heinzerling,  with  additions  by  Wm.  T, 
Brannt  and  Wm.  H.  Wahl,  Ph.  D.  Illustrated  by  78  engraving?. 
l2mo.    495  pages    .        .  .....  00 

f  ROWN. — Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements: 
Embracing  all  those  which  are  most  important  in  Dynamics,  Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Steam-Engines,  Mill  and  othei 
Gearing,  Presses,  Horology  and  Miscellaneous  Machinery;  and  in- 
cluding many  movements  never  before  published,  and  several  of 
which  have  only  recently  come  into  use.  By  Henry  T.  Brown, 
l2mo  $1.00 

BUCKM ASTER.— The  Elements  of  Mechanical  Physics  : 
By  J.  C.  BucKMASTER.      Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings. 
i2mo  ^1.50 

BULLOCK. — The  American  Cottage  Builder  : 

A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans  and  Speciticalions,  from  ^200  to  $20,000, 
for  Homes  for  the  People ;  together  with  Warming,  Ventilation, 
Drainage,  Painting  and  Landscape  Gardening.  By  John  Bullock, 
Architect  and  Editor  of  "  The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and 
Building,"  etc.,  etc.    Illustrated  by  75  engravings.    8vo.  $3.50 

BULLOCK. — The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Building: 
For  the  use  of  Architects,  Builders,  Draughtsmen,  Machinists,  En- 
gineers and  Mechanics.    Edited  by  John  Bullock,  author  of  "The 
American  Cottage  Builder."  Illustrated  by  250  Engravings.  Svo.  $3.50 

BURGH.— Practical   Rules  for  the  Proportions  of  Modem 
Engines  and  Boilers  for  Land  and  Marine  Purposes. 
By  N.  P.  Burgh,  Engineer.    i2mo.        ....  $1.50 

BYLES.— Sophisms  of    Free   Trade   and   Popular  Political 
Economy  Examined. 
By  a  Barrister  (Sir  John  Barnard  Byles,  Judge  of  Common. 
Pleas).      From  the  Ninth  English  Edition,  as  published   by  the 
Manchester  Reciprocity  Association,     i2mo.     .        .        .  ^1.25 

BOWMAN.— The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fibre  in  its  Relation 
to  the  Use  of  Wool  for  Technical  Purposes  : 
Being  the  substance,  with  additions,  of  Five  Lectures,  delivered  at 
the  request  of  the  Council,  to  the  members  of  the  Bradford  Technical 
College,  and  the  Society  of  Dyers  and  Coloiists.  By  F.  H.  Bow- 
man,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  L.  S.  Illustrated  by  32  engravings. 
8vo.  ^6.50 

^YRNE. — Hand-Book  for  the  Artisan,  Mechanic,  and  Engi- 
neer : 

Comprising  the  Grinding  and  Sharpening  of  Cutting  Tools,  Abrasive 
Processes,  Lapidary  Work,  Gem  and  Glass  Engraving,  Varnishing 
and  Lackering,  Apparatus,  Materials  and  Processes  for  Grinding  and 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  7 


Polishing,  etc.    By  Oliver  Byrne.    Illustrated  by  185  wood  en- 
gravings.   8vo.        ........  $5.00 

BYRNE. — Pocket-Book  for  Railroad  and  Civil  Engineers  : 

Containing  New,  Exact  and  Concise  Methods  for  Laying  out  Railroad 
Curves,  Switches,  Frog  Angles  and  Crossings ;  the  Staking  out  of 
work;  Levelling;  the  Calculation  of  Cuttings;  Embankments;  Earth* 
work,  etc.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  i8mo.,  full  bound,  pocket-book 
form  $1.75 

BYRNE.— The  Practical  Metal-Worker's  Assistant: 

Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry;  the  Arts  of  Working  all  Metals 
and  Alloys;  Forging  of  Lon  and  Steel;  Hardening  and  Tempermg; 
Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding  ;  Works  in  Sheet  Metal; 
the  Processes  Dependent  on  the  Ductility  of  the  Metals;  Soldering; 
and  the  most  Improved  Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- 
workers. With  the  Application  of  the  Art  of  Electro-Metallurgy  to 
Manufacturing  Processes;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from 
the  works  of  Holtzapffel,  Bergeron,  Leupold,  Plumier,  Napier, 
Scoffern,  Clay,  Fairbairn  and  others.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  A  new, 
revised  and  improved  edition,  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  con- 
taining The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet- Iron.  By  John  Percy, 
M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  The  Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  and 
Improvements  in  Bessemer  Steel.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.  Wiih  over  Six  Hundred  Engravings,  Illustrating  every 
Branch  of  the  Subject.    8vo  ^7.00 

BYRNE.— The  Practical  Model  Calculator: 

For  the  Engineer,  Mechan.c,  Manufacturer  of  Engine  Work,  Nava!- 
Architect,  Miner  and  Millwright.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  8vo.,  nearly 
600  pages  M-S* 

CA3JNET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE: 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  various  Styles  of  Furniture. 
Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beautifully  Engraved  Plates. 
Oblong,  8vo.    .........  ^^3.50 

CALLINGHAM. — Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing: 

A  Complete  Practical  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  Art.  By  James 
Callingham,    i2mo  $1.50 

CAMPIN. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Engineering: 
Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Work, 
shop  Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  Steam- 
Engines,  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Analysis  of  Iron  and  Iron 
Ores.  By  Francis  Campin,  C.  E.  To  which  are  added.  Observations 
on  the  Construction  of  Steam  Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces 
used  for  Smuke  Prevention;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  By  R. 
Armstrong,  C.  E.,  and  John  Bourne.  Rules  for  Calculating  the 
Change  Wheels  for  Screws  on  a  Turning  Lathe,  and  for  a  Wheel- 
cutting  Machine.  By  J.  La  Nicca.  Management  of  Steel,  Includ- 
ing Forging,  Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing,  Shrinking  and 
Expansi  )n  ;  and  the  Case-hardening  of  Iron.  By  G.  Edf.  8vo. 
Illustrated  with  twenty-nine  plates  and  loo  wood  engravings  ^5.00 


8  HENRV  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


CAREY.— A  Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 

By  Dr.  Wm.  Elder,    With  a  portrait.    8vo.,  cloth       .       .  75 

CAREY.— The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey  : 

Harmony  of  Interests  :  Agricultural,  Manufacturing  and  Commer- 
cial.   8vo,    .       .  ^1.50 

Manual  of  Social  Science.    Condensed  from  Carey's  "  Principles 
of  Social  Science."    By  Kate  McKean.  i  vol,  i2mo.     .  ^2.25 
Miscellaneous  Works.    With  a  Portrait.   2  vols.  8vo.  $6.oc 
Past,  Present  and  Future.    8vo.  .....  ^2.50 

Principles  of  Social  Science.  3  volumes,  8vo.  .  .  $io.oc 
The  Slave-Trade,  Domestic  and  Foreign;  Why  it  Exists,  and 
How  it  may  be  Extinguished  (1853).  8vo.  .  ,  ,  $2.00 
The  Unity  of  Law :  As  Exhibited  in  the  Relations  of  Physical, 
Social,  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (1872).    8vo.        .        .  ^3.50 

CLARK. — Tramways,  their  Construction  and  Working : 

Embracing  0  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System.  With  an  ex- 
haustive analysis  of  the  various  modes  of  traction,  including  horse- 
power, steam,  heated  water  and  compressed  air;  a  description  of  the 
varieties  of  Rolling  stock,  and  ample  details  of  cost  and  working  ex- 
penses. By  D.  KiNNEAR  Clark.  Illustrated  by  over  200  wood 
engravings,  and  thirteen  folding  plates.    2  vols.    8vo.        .  I12.50 

COLBURN.— The  Locomotive  Engine  : 

Including  a  Description  of  its  Structure,  Rules  for  Estimating  its 
Capabilities,  and  Practical  Observations  on  its  Construction  and  Man- 
agement.   By  Zerah  CoLBURN.    Illustrated.    i2mo.       .  ^i.oo 

COLLENS.— The  Eden  of  Labor;  or,  the  Christian  l^topia. 
By  T.  Wharton  Collens,  author  of  "  Humanics,"  "The  History 
of  Charity,"  etc.    l2mo.    Paper  cover,  ^ 1 .00 ;  Cloth        .  ^1.25 

COOLEY.— A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery: 

Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet  Articles, 
With  a  Comprehensive  Collection  of  Formulae.  By  ARNOLD  J. 
CoOLEY.   i2mo  $1.50 

COOPER.— A  Treatise  on  the  use  of  Belting  for  the  Trans  > 
mission  of  Power. 
With  numerous  illustrations  of  approved  and  actual  methods  of  ar- 
ranging Main  Driving  and  Quarter  Twist  Belts,  and  of  Belt  Fastenv 
ings.  Examples  and  Rules  in  great  number  for  exhibiting  ar>d  cal- 
culating the  size  and  driving  power  of  Belts.  Plain,  Particular  and 
Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment,  Care  and  Manigement  of 
Belts.  Descriptions  of  many  varieties  of  Beltings,  together  with 
chapters  on  the  Transmission  of  Power  by  Ropes;  by  Iron  and 
Wood  Frictional  Gearing;  on  the  Strength  of  Belting  Leather;  and 
on  the  Experimental  Investigations  of  Morin,  Briggs,  and  others.  By 
John  H.  Cooper,  M.  E.  8vo  $3-5^ 

CRAIK.— The  Practical  American  Millwright  and  M'(.ler. 

By  David  Craik,  Millwright.  Illustrated  by  numerous  wood  en 
gravings  and  two  folding  plates.    8vo.      ....  1^5.0^" 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  ^ 


CREW. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Petroleum  : 

Comprising  its  Origin,  Geology,  Geographica]  Distribution,  History, 
Chemistry,  Mining,  Technology,  Uses  and  Transportation.  Together 
with  a  Description  of  Gas  Wells,  the  Application  of  Gas  as  Fuel,  etc. 
By  Benjamin  J.  Crew.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Product  and 
Exhaustion  of  the  Oil  Regions,  and  the  Geology  of  Natural  Gas  in 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  .By  CHARLES  A.  AsHRURNER,  M.  S  . 
Geologist  in  Charge  Pennsylvania  Survey,  Philadelphia  Illustrated 
by  70  engravings.    8vo.    508  pages        ....  $5.00 

CROSS.— The  Cotton  Yarn  Spinner: 

Showing  how  the  Preparation  should  be  arranged  for  Different 
Counts  of  Yarns  by  a  System  more  uniform  than  has  hitherto  been 
practiced;  by  having  a  Standard  Schedule  from  which  we  make  all 
our  Changes.    By  Richard  Cross.    122  pp.    i2mo.     .  75 

CRISTIANL— A  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles: 
With  a  Glance  at  the  Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.    By  R.  S.  Cris 
TIANI,  Chemist.    Author  of  "  Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts."  Illus- 
trated by  176  engravings.    581  pages,  8vo.       .        .       .  $7-3^ 

CRISTIANL— Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts: 
A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  a  History  of 
Perfumes  from  the  remotest  ages  to  the  present  time.  A  complete 
detailed  description  of  the  various  Materials  and  Apparatus  used  in 
the  Perfumer's  Art,  with  thorough  Practical  Instruction  and  careful 
Formulae,  and  advice  for  the  fabrication  of  all  known  preparations  of 
the  day,  including  Essences,  Tinctures,  Extracts,  Spirits,  Waters, 
Vinegars,  Pomades,  Powders,  Paints,  Oils,  Emulsions,  Cosmetics, 
Infusions,  Pastilles,  Tooth  Powders  and  W^ashes,  Cachous,  Hair  Dyes, 
Sachets,  Essential  Oils,  Flavoring  Extracts,  etc. :  and  full  details  for 
making  and  manipulating  Fancy  Toilet  Soaps,  Shaving  Creams,  etc., 
by  new  and  improved  methods.  With  an  Appendix  giving  hints  and 
advice  for  making  and  fermenting  Domestic  Wines,  Cordials,  Liquors, 
Candies,  Jellies,  Syrups,  Colors,  etc.,  and  for  Perfuming  and  Flavor- 
ing Segars,  Snuff  and  Tobacco,  and  Miscellaneous  Receipts  foi 
various  useful  Analogous  Articles.  By  R.  S.  Cristiani,  Con- 
sulting Chemist  and  Perfumer,  Philadelphia.    8vo.    .       .  $S-<^ 

3AVIDSON. — A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting,  Grain-i 
ing,  Marbling,  and  Sign- Writing : 
Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Painting  in 
Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and  Practice  of  Sign- 
Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  a  Course  of  Elementary 
Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers,  etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful 
Receipts.  With  nine  colored  iliubtrations  of  Woods  and  Marbles, 
aad  numerous  wood  engravings.    By  Ellis  A.  Davidson.  i2mo. 

AVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Earthy  and  Other  Minerals  and 
Mining  : 

By  D.  C.  Davies,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  etc.  Illustrated  by 
76  Engravings.    i2mo.    .......  $5.00 


ro        HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


DA  VIES. — A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining: 

By  D.  C.  Davies,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of  MineS| 
Quarries  and  Collieries.  Illustrated  by  148  engravings  of  Geological 
Formations,  Mining  Operations  and  Machinery,  drawn  from  the 
practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  jd  Edition,  i2mo.,  450  pages  $$.06 
DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying: 
Scientific,  Practical  and  Commercial.  By  D.  C.  Davies,  F.  G.  S., 
Mining  Engineer,  etc.  With  numerous  illustrations  and  folding 
plates,    lamo.  $2.01 

DAVIS. — A  Treatise  on  Steam-Boiler  Incrustation  and  Meth- 
ods for  Preventing  Corrosion  and  the  Formation  of  Scale  ; 

By  Charles  T.  Davis.  Illustrated  by  65  engravings.  8vo.  $i.$o 
PAVIS.— The  Manufacture  of  Paper: 

Being  a  Description  of  the  various  Processes  for  the  Fabrication, 
Coloring  and  Finishing  of  every  kind  of  Paper,  Including  the  Dif- 
ferent Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their  Values, 
the  Tools,  Machines  and  Practical  Details  connected  with  an  intelli- 
gent and  a  profitable  prosecution  of  the  art,  with  special  reference  to 
the  best  American  Practice.  To  which  are  added  a  History  of  Pa- 
per, complete  Lists  of  Paper-Making  Materials,  List  of  American 
Machines,  Tools  and  Processes  used  in  treating  the  Raw  Materials, 
and  in  Making,  Coloring  and  Finishing  Paper.  By  CHARLES  T. 
Davis.  Illustrated  by  156  engravings.  608  pages,  8vo.  $6.00 
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DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
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EISSLER.— The  Metallurgy  of  Gold: 

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Based  on  the  German  of  Ladislaus  Von  Wagner,  Professor  in  the 
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authorities.  By  Julius  Frankel,  Graduate  of  the  Polytechnic 
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GARDNER.— The  Painter's  Encyclopaedia  : 

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GARDNER.— Everybody's  Paint  Book: 

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GEE.— The  Goldsmith's  Handbook : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Gold, 
including  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing,  Coloring,  Col- 
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GEE.— The  Silversmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Silver, 
including  the  different  modes  of  Refinin'^  and  Melting  the  Metal;  its 
Solders;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Allojs;  Methods  of  Manipula- 
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GOTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET-MAKERS: 

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GRANT.— A  Handbook  on  the  Teeth  of  Gears  : 

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GREENWOOD.— Steel  and  Iron: 

Comprising  the  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Several  Methods  Pur- 
sued in  their  Manufacture,  and  of  their  Treatment  in  the  Rolling- 
Mills,  the  Forge,  and  the  Foundry.  By  William  Henry  Green- 
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GREGORY.— Mathematics  for  Practical  Men : 

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Civil  Engineers.    By  Olinthus  Gregory.    8vo.,  plates  $3-00 

GRIMSHAW.— Saws : 

The  History,  Development,  Action,  Classification,  and  Comparison 
of  Saws  of  all  kinds.  Wi^/i  Copious  Appendices.  Giving  the  details 
of  Manufacture,  Filing,  Setting,  Gumming,  etc.  Care  and  Use  of 
Saws;  Tables  of  Gauges;  Capacities  of  Saw-Mills;  List  of  Saw- 
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GRISWOLD. — Railroad  Engineer's  Pocket  Companion  for  the 
Field : 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and  Angles, 
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gineers;  also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from  Preliminary  Survey  to  the 
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W.  Griswold.    i2mo.,  tucks  ^i-75 

GRUNER. — Studies  of  Blast  Furnace  Phenomena: 

By  M.  L.  Gruner,  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines  oi 
France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines. 
Translated,  with  the  author's  sanction,  with  an  /vppendix,  by  L.  D. 
B.  Gordon,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S.    8vo.  .       .       .  ^2.50 

Hand-Book  of  Useful  Tables  for  the  Lumberman,  Farmer  and 
Mechanic : 

Containing  Accurate  Tables  of  Logs  Reduced  to  Inch  Board  Meas* 
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32  mo.,  boards.    186  pages   .25 

HASERICK.— The  Secrets  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Cotton, 
and  Linen, 

Including  Bleaching  and  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery  and 
Random  Yarns.    A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and  Practice.  By 
E.  C.  Haserick.    Illustrated  by  323  Dyed  Patterns  of  the  Yami 
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HATS  AND  FELTING: 

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HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  15 

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HOFMANN.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
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and  the  United  Slates ;  recently  Manager  of  the  "  Public  Ledger " 
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gravings, and  five  large  Folding  Plates.  4to.,  cloth ;  about  400 
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HUGHES. — American  Miller  and  Millwright's  Assistant; 
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HULME. — Worked  Examination  Questions  in  Plane  Geomet- 
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For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
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examples.    Small  quarto  ^2.50 

JERVIS.— Railroad  Property: 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Railways; 
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KEEN E.— A  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Gauging: 

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ascertaining  the  Strength  of  Wines.  By  JAMES  B.  Keene,  of  H.  M. 
Customs.    8vo.  $1.25 

KELLEY. — Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industrial  and 
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KELLOGG. — A  New  Monetary  System  : 

The  only  means  of  Securing  the  respective  Rights  of  Labor  and 
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By  Edward  Kellogg.    Revised  from  his  work  on  "Labor  and 
other  Capital."    With  numerous  additions  from    his  manuscript. 
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KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's  Hand-Book : 
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KENTISH.— A  Treatise  on  a  Box  of  Instruments, 

And  the  Slide  Rule;  with  the  Theory  of  Trigonometry  and  Loga 
rithms,  including  Practical  Geometry,  Surveying,  Measuring  of  Tim- 
ber,  Cask  and  Malt  Gauging,  Heights,  and  Distances.  By  Thomas 
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KERL.— The  Assayer's  Manual: 
An  Abridged  Treatise  on  the  Docimastic  Examination  of  Ores,  and 
Furnace  and  other  Artihcial  Products.  By  Bruno  Kerl,  Professor 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
William  T.  Brannt,  Second  American  edition,  edited  with  Ex- 
tensive Additions  by  F.  Lynwood  Garrison,  Member  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  etc.  Illustrated  by  87  en- 
gravings.   8vo.       ........  $3.00 

K.JCK. — Flour  Manufacture. 

A  Treatise  on  Milling  Science  and  Practice.  By  Frederick  Kick, 
Imperial  Regierungsrnth,  Professor  of  Mechanical  Technology  in  the 
imperial  German  Polytechnic  Institute,  Prague.  Translated  from 
the  second  enlarged  and  revised  edition  with  supplement  by  H.  H. 
P.  POWLES,  Assoc.  Memb.  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  Illustrated 
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KINGZETT.— The  History,  Products,  and  Processes  of  the 
Alkali  Trade : 

Including  the  most  Recent  Improvements,  By  Charles  Thomas 
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KINSLEY. — Self-Instructor  on  Lumber  Surveying: 

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By  Charles  Kinsley,  Practical  Surveyor  and  Teacher  of  Surveying 
l2mo.  .......... 

K  IRK.— The  Founding  of  Metals  : 
A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Melting  of  Iron,  with  a  Description  of  the 
Founding  of  Alloys;  also,  of  all  the  Metals  and  Mineral  Substances 
used  in  the  Art  of  Founding.  Collected  from  original  sources.  By 
Edward  Kirk,  Practical  Foundryman  and  Chemist.  Illustrated. 
Third  edition.    8vo.  $2.50 

LANDRIN.— A  Treatise  on  Steel : 
Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical  Working, 
and  Use.  By  M.  H.  C.  Landrin,  Jr.,  Civil  Engineer.  Translated 
^"rom  the  French,  with  Notes,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  an  Appendix  on  the  Bessemer  and  the  Martin  Pro- 
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United  States  Commissioner  to  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867. 
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LARDEN.~A  School  Course  on  Heat: 
By  W.  Larden,  M.  A.    321  pp.  i2mo.    ....  j^2.0(; 

GARDNER,— The  Steam-Engine : 
For  <^e  Use  of  Beginners.   By  Dr.  Lardner.  Illustrated.  l2ino, 

7^ 


tIENRY  CAREV   BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  17 


LARKIN. — The  Practical  Brass  and  Iron  Founder's  Guide*, 

A  Concise  Ticatise  on  Brass  P^oimcling,  Moulding,  the  Metals  and 
their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  wnich  are  added  Recent  Impiovements  in  the 
Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer  Process,  etc.,  etc.  By 
James  I,arkin,  late  Conductor  of  the  Brass  Foundry  Department  ii; 
Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Penn  Works,  Philadelphia.    Fifth  edition, 
revised,  with  extensive  additions.     i2mo.  .       .       .  ^2.25 

LEROUX,— A   Practical    Treatise    on  the   Manufacture  of 
Worsteds!,  and  Carded  Yarns  : 
Comprising  Practical  Mechanics,  with  Rules  and  Calculations  applied 
to  Spinning;  Sorting,  Cleaning,  and  Scouring  Wools;  the  English 
and  French  Methods  of  Combing,  Drawing,  and  Spinning  Worsteds, 
and  Manufacturing  Carded  Yarns.    Translated  from  the  French  of 
Charles  Leroux,  Mechanical  Engineer  and  Su])erintendent  of  a 
Spinning-Mill,  by  Moratio  Paine,  M.  D.,  and  A.  A.  Fesquet, 
•     Chemist  and  Engineer.   lUustiated  by  twelve  large  Plates.    To  which 
is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Extracts  from  the  Reports  of  the 
International  Jury,  and  of  the  Ariisaiis  SL'lected  by  the  Committee 
appointed  by  the  Council  of  the  Society  of  Ai  ts,  London,  on  Woolen 
and  Worsted  Machinery  and  Fabrics,  as  exhibited  in  the  Paris  Uni- 
versal Exposition,  1867.    8vo.  .....  $5.00 

LEFFEL.— The  Construction  of  Mill-Dams  : 
Comprising  also  the  BuMding  of  Race  and  Reservoir  Embankments 
and  Head-Gates,  the  Measurement  of  Streams,  Gauging  of  Water 


Supply,  etc.    By  James  Leffel  &  Co.    Illustrated  by  58  engravings. 

8vo.  ^2,50 

LESLIE.— Complete  Cookery: 
Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.    By  Miss  Leslie. 
Sixtieth  thousand.    Thoroughly  revised,  with  the  addition  of  New 
Receipts,    i2mo   ^1.50 


LE  VAN. — The  Steam  Engine  and  the  Indicator: 

Their  Origin  and  Progressive  Development ;  including  the  Most 
Recent  Examples  of  Steam  and  Gas  Motors,  together  with  the  Indi- 
cator, its  Principles,  its  Utility,  and  its  Application.  By  William 
Barnet  Le  Van.  Illustrated  by  205  Engravings,  chiefly  of  Indi- 
cator-Cards.   469  pp.    8vo.     ......  ^.OQ 

l-IEBER.— Assayer's  Guide  : 

Or,  Practical  I^irections  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters,  for  the 
Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for  the  Ores  of  all 
the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  and  Alloys,  and  of 
Coal,  etc.    By  Oscar  M.  Lierer.    i2mo.      .       .       .  ^1.25 

Lockwood's  Dictionary  of  Terms  : 

Used  in  the  Practice  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  embracing  those 
Current  in  the  Drawing  Office,  Pattern  Shop,  Foundry,  Fitting,  Turn- 
ing, Smith's  and  Boiler  Shops,  etc.,  etc.,  comprising  upwards  of  Six 
Thousand  Definitions.  Edited  by  a  Foreman  Pattern  Maker,  author 
ijf  "  Pattern  Making."    417  pp.    i2mo.         .       .       .  ^^3.00 


i8       lIElfRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

LUKIN.— Amongst  Machines: 

Embracing  Descriptions  of  the  various  Mechanical  Appliances  used 
in  the  Manufacture  of  Wood,  Metal,  and  other  Substances.  i2mo. 

I  7  ^ 

^UICIN,— The  Boy  Engineers: 

What  They  Did,  and  How  They  Did  It.    With  30  plates.  l8mo. 

^1-75 

LUKIN.— The  Young  Mechanic  : 

Practical  Carpentry.    Containing  Directions  for  the  Use  of  all  kinds 
of  Tools,  and  for  Construction  of  Steam- Engines  and  Mechanical  . 
Models,  including  the  Art  of  Turning  m  Wood  and  Metal.    By  JoHN 
LuKiN,  Author  of  "The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses,"  elc.  Illustrated. 
l2m.o  ^1-75 

MAIN  and  BROWN. — Questions  on  Subjects  Connected  with 
the  Marine  Steam-Engine : 
And    Examination    Papers.;    with    Hints   for   their  Solution.  By^ 
Thomas  ].  Main,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Royal  Naval  College, 
and  Th(^mas  PiROWn,  Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.    i2mo.,  cloth  .  ^1.50 

MAIN  and  BROWN. — The  Indicator  and  Dynamometer: 
With  their  Practical  Applications  to  the  Steam-Engine.    By  THOMAS 
J.  Main,  M.  A.  F.  R.,  Ass't  S.  Professor  Royal  Naval  College, 
PorismoLiih,  and  THOMAS  Brown,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer 
R.  N.,  aituli-'i  to  the  R.  N.  College,    Illustrated.    8vo.  .  ^1.50 

MAIN  and  BROWN.— The  Marine  Steam-Engine. 
By  Thumas  J.  Main,  F.  R.  Ass't  S.  Mathematical  Professor  at  the 
Royal   Naval  College,  Portsmouth,  and  Thomas  Brown,  Assoc. 
Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer  R.  N.    Attached  to  the  Royal  Nava,l 
College.    With  numerous  illustrations.    8vo.  .        .  $5.00 

MAKINS.— A  Manual  of  Metallurgy: 

By  Gr.)1-igl:  iioGARTH  Makins.  100  engravings.  Second  edition 
rewritten  and  much  enlarged.    i2mo.,  592  pages     .        .  $3-00 

MARTiiNj.— Screw-Cutting  Tables,  for  the  Use  of  Mechanical 

Engineers  : 

Shou  i  ig  ihc  Proper  Arrangement  of  Wheels  for  Cutting  the  Threads 
of  Scre\^•s  of  any  Rccjuired  Pitch ;  with  a  Table  for  Making  the  Uni- 
verbal  Gas-Pipe  Thread  and  Taps.  By  W.  A.  Martin,  Engineer. 
8vo.  50 

\tICHELL.~-Mine  Drainage: 
Being  a  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Direct-Acting  Under- 
ground Steam  Pumping  Machinery.  With  a  Description  of  a  largtf 
number  of  the  best  known  Engines,  their  General  Utility  and  the 
•Special  Sphere  of  their  Action,  the  Mode  of  their  Application,  and 
their  Merits  compared  with  other  Pumping  Machinery.  By  STEPHEN 
MiCHELL.   Illustrated  by  137  engravings.   8vo.,  277  pages  ,  ^6.00 

liOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book   of   Useful    Formu.Tae  and 
Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 
By  Guilford  L.  Molesvvorth,  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civtf 
Engineers,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the  Ceylon  Railway.  Full- 
bound  in  Pocket-book  form  j^I.Ob 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO."S  CATALOGUE.  19 


MOORE. — The  Universal  Assistant  and  the  Complete  Me- 
chanic : 

Containing  over  one  million  Industrial  Facts,  Calculations,  Receipts, 
Processes,  Trades  Secrets,  Rules,  Business  Forms,  Legal  Items,  Etc., 
in  every  occupation,  from  the  Household  to  the  Manufactory.  By 
R.  Moore.    Illustrated  by  500  Engravings.    i2mo.         .  $2.$0 

MORRIS. — Easy  Rules  for  the  Measurement  of  Earthworks  : 
By  means  of  the  Prismoidal  Formula.  Illustrated  with  Numerout 
Wood-Cuts,  Problems,  and  Examples,  and  concluded  by  an  Exten- 
sive Table  for  finding  the  Solidity  in  cubic  yards  from  IVLean  Areas. 
The  whole  being  adapted  for  convenient  use  by  Engineers,  Surveyors, 
Contractors,  and  others  needing  Correct  Measurements  of  Earthwork. 
By  Elwood  Morris,  C.  E.    8vo  ^1.50 

MORTON. — The  System  of  Calculating  Diameter,  Circumfer- 
ence, Area,  and  Squaring  the  Circle  : 
«     Together  with  Interest  and  Miscellaneous  Tables,  and  other  informa* 
tion.    By  James  Morton.     Second  Edition,  enlarged,  with  the 
Metric  System.    i2mo  $l.<M 

NAPIER.— Manual  of  Electro-Metallurgy: 

Including  the  Application  of  the  Art  to  Manufacturing  Processes. 
By  James  Napier.  Fourth  American,  from  the  Fourth  Londorv 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.    Illustrated  by  engravings.  8vo. 

NAPIER. — A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing, 

By  James  Napier,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised  Edi- 
•  tion.  Completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the  Science, 
including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Caaco 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  Illus- 
trated, 8vo.  422  pages   $3.50 

.  NEVILLE.— Hydraulic  Tables,  Coefficients,  and  Formulae,  for 
finding  the  Discharge  of  Water  from  Orifices,  Notches, 
Weirs,  Pipes,  and  Rivers : 
Third  Edition,  with  Additions,  consisting  of  New  Formulae  for  the 
Discharge  from  Tidal  and  Flood  Sluices  and  Siphons ;  general  infor- 
mation on  Rainfall,  Catchment-Basins,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  Water 
Supply  for  Towns  and  Mill  Power,  By  ToHN  Neville,  C,  E,  M.  R. 
I.  A. ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland.  Thick 
l^mo   15.50 

NEWBER v.— Gleanings    from    Ornamental    Art  of  every 
style ; 

Drawn  from  Examples  in  the  British,  South  Kensington,  Indian, 
Crystal  Palace,  and  other  Museums,  the  Exhibitions  of  185 1  and 
1862,  and  the  best  English  and  Foreign  works.  In  a  series  of  100 
exquisitely  drawn  Plates,  containing  many  hundred  examples.  By 

Robert  Newbery,  410.  ^12,50 

MICHOLLS,  —The  Theoretical  and  Practical  Boiler-Maker  and 
Engineer's  Reference  Book: 
Containing  a  variety  of  Useful  Information  for  Employers  of  Labor. 
Foremen  and  Working:  Boiler- Makers,  Iron,  Copper,  and  Tinsmith* 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


Draughtsmen,  Engineers,  the  General  Steam-using  Public,  and  for  the 
Use  of  Science  Schools  and  Classes.  By  SAMUEL  NiCHOLLS.  Illus- 
trated by  sixteen  plaies,  i2mo.  .....  ^2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Bookbinding : 

Containing  full  instruciions  in  the  different  Branches  of  Forwarding, 
Gilding,  and  Finishing.  Also,  the  Art  of  Marbling  Book-edges  and 
Paper.    By  James  B.  NICHOLSON.    Illustrated.  i2mo.,  cloth  $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The  Railway  Builder: 

A  Hand-Book  for  Estimating  the  Probable  Cost  of  American  Rail- 
way Construction  and  Equipment.  By  William  J.  NiCOLLS,  Civil 
Engineer.   Illustiated,  full  bound,  pocket-book  form         .  ^2.00 

NORMANDY.— The  Commercial  Handbook  of  Chemical  An- 
alysis : 

Or  Practical  Instructions  for  the  Determination  of  the  Intrinsic  01 
Commercial  Value  of  Substances  used  in  Manufactures,  in  Trades, 
and  in  the  Arts.    By  A.  Normandy.    New  Edition,  Enlarged,  and 
to  a  great  extent  rewritten.    By  Henry  M.  Noad,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 
thick  i2mo.      .........  $5.00 

N ORRIS. — A  Handbook  for  Locomotive  Engineers  and  Ma- 
chinists : 

Comprising  the  Proportions  and  Calculations  for  Constructing  Loco- 
motives; Manner  of  Setting  Valves;  Tables  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Areas, 
etc.,  etc.  By  Septimus  Norris,  M.  E.  New  edition.  Illustrated, 
I2mo  $1.50 

NYSTROM.— A  New  Treatise  on  Elements  of  Mechanics  : 
Establishing  Strict  Precision  in  the  Meaning  of  Dynamical  Terms : 
accompanied  with  an  Appendix  on  Duodenal  Arithmetic  and  Me- 
trology.   By  John  W.  Nystrom,  C.  E.    Illustrated.    8vo.  ^2.00 

NYSTROM.— On  Technological  Education  and  the  Construc- 
tion of  Ships  and  Screw  Propellers : 
For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.    By  John  W.  Nystrom,  late 
Acting  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  N.    Second  edition,  revised,  with  addi- 
tional matter.    Illustrated  by  seven  engravings.     i2mo.    .  $1.50 

^'NEILL. — A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing: 
Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Processes  in 
use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics  ;  with  Practical 
Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By  Charles  O'Neill,  Analy- 
tical Chemist.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and 
their  application  to  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  8vo., 
491  pages  I3.50 

DRTON. — Underground  Treasures*. 
How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  Determination 
of  all  the  Useful  Minerals  within  the  United  States.  By  James 
OrtoN,  A.M.,  Late  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Vassar  College, 
N.  v.;  Cor.  Mem.  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia, 
and  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  New  York ;  author  of  the 
♦•Andes  and  the  Amazon,"  etc.  A  New  Edition,  with  Additions. 
Illustrated  $i.So 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  i 


OSBORN. — The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel: 

Theoretical  and  Practical  in  all  its  Branches ;  with  special  refprence 
to  American  Materials  and  Processes.    By  H.  S.  0-.BORN,  LL.  D., 
Professor  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  Lafayette  College,  Easton, 
Pennsylvania,    Illustrated  by  numerous  large  folding  plates  and 
wood-engravings.    8vo.  ......  ^25.00 

OSBORN. — A  Practical  Manual  of  Minerals,  Mines  and  Min- 
ing: 

Comprising  the  Physical  Properties,  Geologic  Positions,  Local  Occur- 
rence and  Associations  of  the  Useful  Minerals ;  their  Methods  of 
Chemical  Analysis  and  Assay:  together  with  Various  Systems  of 
Excavating  and  Timbering,  Brick  and  Masonry  Work,  during  Driv- 
ing, Lining,  Bracing  and  other  Operations,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  S. 
OsBORN,  LL.  D.,  Author  of  the  "  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel," 
Illustrated  by  171  engravings  from  original  drawings.    8vo.  m..50 

OVERMAN.— The  Manufacture  of  Steel : 

Containing  the  Practice  and  Principles  of  Working  and  Making  Steel, 
A  Handbook  for  Blacksmiths  and  Workers  in  Steel  and  Iron,  Wagon 
Makers,  Die  Sinkers,  Cutlers,  and  Manufacturers  of  Files  and  Hard- 
ware, of  Steel  and  Iron,  and  for  Men  of  Science  and  Art.  By 
Frederick  Overman,  Mining  Engineer,  Author  of  the  "  Manu- 
facture of  Iron,"  etc.  A  new,  enlarged,  and  revised  Edition.  By 
A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  Engineer.    i2mo.       .       .  ^1.50 

OVERMAN.— The  Moulder's  and  Founder's  Pocket  Guide  : 
A  Treatise  on  Moulding  and  Founding  in  Green-sand,  Dry-sand,  Loam, 
and  Cement;  the  Moulding  of  Machine  Frames,  Mill-gear,  Hollow- 
ware,  Ornaments,  Trinkets,  Bells,  and  Statues  ;  Description  of  Moulds 
for  Iron,  Bronze,  Brass,  and  other  Metals ;  Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphur, 
Wax,  etc. ;  the  Construction  of  Melting  Furnaces,  the  Melting  and 
Founding  of  Metals  ;  the  Composition  of  Alloys  and  their  Nature, 
etc.,  etc.  By  Frederick  Overman,  M.  E.  A  new  Edition,  to 
which  is  added  a  Supplement  on  Statuary  and  Ornamental  Moulding, 
Ordnance,  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  etc.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chem- 
ist and  Engineer.    Illustrated  by  44  engravings.    l2mo.   .  $2.09 

PAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION-. 
Containing  Rules  and  Regulations  in  everything  relating  to  the  ArlS 
of  Painting,  Gilding,  Varnishing,  Glass-Staining,  Graining,  Marbling, 
Sign- Writing,  Gilding  on  Gla^s,  and  Coach  Painting  and  Varnishini^ ; 
Tests  for  the  Deteciion  of  Adulterations  in  Oils,  Colors,  etc.;  and  a 
Statement  of  the  Diseases  to  which  Painters  are  peculiarly  liable,  with 
the  Simplest  and  Best  Remedies.  Sixteenth  Edition.  Revised,  with 
an  Appendix.  Containing  Colors  and  Coloring — Theoretical  and 
Practical.  Comprising  descriptions  of  a  great  variety  of  Additional 
Pigments,  their  Qualities  and  Uses,  to  which  are  added.  Dryers,  and 
Modes  and  Operations  of  Painting,  etc.  Together  with  Chevreui  s 
Principles  of  Plarmony  and  Contrast  of  Colors.  l2mo.    Cloth  ;^l.50 

PALLETT.— The  Miller's,  Millwright's,  and  Engineer's  Guide. 
By  Hknry  Pallett.    Illustrated.    i2mo.      .       ,      ,  $2.00 


22       HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


PERCY.— The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron. 

By  John  Percy,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  Lecturer  on  Metallurgy  at  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines,  and  to  The  Advance  Class  of  Artillery 
Officers  at  the  Royal  Artillery  Institution,  Woolwich ;  Author  of 
*'  Metallurgy."  With  Illustrations.    8vo,,  paper      .       .       50  cts. 

PERKINS.— Gas  and  Ventilation  : 
Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  and  Ventilation.    With  Special  Relation 
to  Illuminating,  Heating,  and  Cooking  by  Gas.    Including  Scientific 
Helps  to  Engineer-students  and  others.    With  Illustrated  Diagrams. 
By  E.  E.  Perkins.    i2mo.,  cloth  ^1.25 

PERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  New  Guide  to  the  Sheet-iron 
and  Boiler  Plate  Roller  : 
Containing  a  Series  of  Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Slabs  and  Piles 
to  Produce  Boiler  Plates,  and  of  the  Weight  of  Piles  and  the  Sizes  of 
Bars  to  produce  Sheet-iron ;  the  Thickness  of  the  Bar  Gauge 
in  decimals ;  the  Weight  per  foot,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Bar  or 
Wire  Gauge  of  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch ;  the  Weight  per 
sheet,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Wire  Gauge  of  Sheet-iron  of  various 
dimensions  to  weigh  112  lbs.  per  bundle;  and  the  conversion  of 
Short  Weight  into  Long  Weight,  and  Long  Weight  into  Short. 
Estimated  and  collected  by  G.  H.  Perkins  and  J.  G.  Stowe.  ^2.53 

POWELL— CHANCE— HARRIS.— The  Principles  of  Glass 
Making. 

By  Harry  J.  Powell,  B.  A.  Together  with  Treatises  on  Crown  and 
Sheet  Glass;  by  Henry  Chance,  M.  A.  And  Plate  Glass,  by  H. 
G.  Harris,  Asso.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.    Illustrated  i8mo.        .  $i-S^ 

PROCTOR.— A  Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Tables  and  Formulae 
for  Marine  Engineers  : 
By  Frank  Proctor.    Second    Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Full -bound  pocket-book  form    ......  ^1.50 

REGNAULT.— Elements  of  Chemistry: 

By  M.  V.  Regnault.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  Forrest 
Betton,  M.  D.,  a«id  edited,  with  Notes,  by  James  C.  Booth,  Melter 
and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  William  L.  Faber,  Metallurgist  and 
Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood-engiavings.  Com- 
prising nearly  1,500  pages.    In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  cloth  .  ^7.50 

RICHARDS.— Aluminium  : 

Its  History,  Occurrence,  Properties,  Metallurgy  and  Applications, 
including  its  Alloys,  By  Joseph  W.  Richards,  A.  C,  Chemist  and 
Practical  Metallurgist,  Member  of  the  Deutsche  Chemische  Gesell- 
schift.     Illustrated  i^S-OO 

RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT,— A  Practical 
Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Colors  for  Painting : 
Comprising  the  Ori'Tin,  Definition,  and  Classification  of  Colors;  the 
Treatment  of  the  Ra-A-  Materials;  the  best  Formulae  and  the  Newest 
Processes  for  the  Preparaticm  of  every  description  of  Pigment,  and 
the  Necessary  Apparatus  and  Directions  for  its  Use;  Dryers;  the 
Testing,  Application,  and  Qualities  of  Paints,  etc,  etc.  By  MM. 
Riffault,  Vergnaud,  and  Toussaint.    Revised  and  Edited  by  M. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  23 


T.  Malepeybe.  Translated  from  the  French,  by  A.  A.  FesqURT; 
Chemist  and  Engmeer.  Illustrated  by  Eighty  engravings.  In  one 
vol..  8vo.,  659  pages        .......  $7 

ROPER.— A  Catechism  of  High-Pressure,  or  Non-Condensing 
Steam-Engines  : 
Including  the  Modelling,  Constructing,  and  Management  of  Steam- 
Engines  and  Steam  Boilers.  With  valuable  illustrations.  By  Ste- 
phen Roper.  Engineer,  Sixteenth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged, 
l8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  ^2.00 

£?OPER. — Engineer's  Handy-Book: 
Containing  a  full  Explanation  of  the  Steam-Engine  Indicator,  and  its 
Use  and  Advantages  to  Engineers  and  Steam  Users.  With  Formulae 
/or  Estimating  the  Power  of  all  Classes  of  Steam-Engines;  also. 
Facts,  Figures,  Questions,  and  Tables  for  Engineers  who  wish  to 
qualify  them->clves  for  the  United  States  Navy,  the  Revenue  Service, 
the  MercaniUe  Marine,  or  to  take  charge  of  the  Better  Class  of  Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines.  Sixth  edition.  i6mo..  690  pages,  tucks, 
gilt  edge  ^3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  : 

Including  the  Mcxlelling,  Construction,  Running,  and  Management 
of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.  With  illustrations.  By 
Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.    Sixth  edition,    i2mo.,tx'cks,  gilt  edge. 

ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive  : 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the  Construc- 
tion, Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives.  By  Stephen 
Roper.    Eleventh  edition.    i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge         .  ^2.50 

ROPER,— Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fire-Engines. 

With  illustrations.  By  STEPHEN  Roper,  Engineer.  Fourth  edition, 
i2mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge      .......  $3.50 

ROPER. — Questions  and  Answers  for  Engineers, 

This  little  book  contains  all  the  Questions  that  Engineers  will  be 
asked  when  undergoing  an  Examination  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
Licenses,  and  they  are  so  plain  that  any  Engineer  or  Fireman  of  or 
dinary  intelligence  may  commit  them  to  memory  in  a  short  time.  By 
Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.    Third  edition      .       .       .  ^3.00 

ROPER.— Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler. 

By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  Eighth  edition,  with  illustrations. 
i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  ^2.00 

ROSE.— The  Complete  Practical  Machinist : 

Embracing  Lathe  Work,  Vise  Work,  Drills  and  Drilling,  Taps  itnd 
Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of  Tools, 
Tool  Grinding,  Marking  out  Work,  etc.  By  Joshua  Rose.  Illus- 
trated by  356  engravings.  Thirteenth  edition,  thoroughly  revised 
and  in  great  part  rewritten.    In  one  vol.,  i2mo.,  439  pages  $2.<^G 

^.OSE.— Mechanical  Drawing  Self-Taught: 
Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of  Drawing 
in^trumen  s,  E'ementary  Instruction  in  Practical  Mechanical  Diaw- 


24       HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


ing,  together  with  Examples  in  Simple  Geometry  and  Elementary 
Mechanism,  including  Screw  Threads,  Gear  Wheels,  Mechanical 
Motions,  Engines  and  Boilers.  By  Joshua  Rose,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  330  engravings,    8vo  ,313  pages        ....       ^4  00 

ROSE.— The  Slide- Valve  Practically  Explained: 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of  th. 
operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement,  and  illustrate 
ing  the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions  by  examples  care- 
fully selected  from  the  most  recent  and  successful  practice.  By 
Joshua  Rose,  M.  E.    Illustrated  by  35  engravings         ,  ^i.oo 

ROSS, — The  Blowpipe  in  Chemistry,  Mineralogy  and  Geology: 

Containing  all  Known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many  Work- 
ing Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus.  By  LiEUT.- 
CoLONEL  W.  A.  Ross,  R.  A.,  F.  G.  S,     With  120  Illustrations. 

i2mo  $2.00 

SHAW.— Civil  Architecture : 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building,  con- 
taining the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  Edward  Shaw, 
Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Architecture,  etc. 
By  Thomas  W.  Sili.oway  and  George  M.  Harding,  Architects. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper. 
Eleventh  edition.    4to  ^10.00 

SHUNK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Loca- 
tion, for  Young  Engineers. 

By  W.  F.  Skunk,  C.  E.  i2mo.  Full  bound  pocket-book  form  ^2.00 
SLATER.— The  Manual  of  Colors  and  Dye  Wares. 

By  J.  W.  Slater.    i2mo  ^375 

SLOAN. — American  Houses  : 

A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
26  colored  engravings,  with  descriptive  references.  By  Samuel 
Sloan,  Architect.    8vo.   ^1.50 

SLOAN. — Homestead  Architecture: 

Containing  Forty  Designs  for  Villas,  Cottages,  and  Farm-houses,  with 
Essays  on  Style,  Construction,  Landscape  Gardenmg,  Furniture,  etc., 
etc.  Illustrated  by  upwards  of  200  engravings.  By  Samuel  Sloan, 
Architect.    8vo  ^3-50 

SLOANE. — Home  Experiments  in  Science. 

By  T.  O'CoNOR  Sloane,  E.  M.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.  Illustrated  by  91 
engravings.     i2mo.  .......  ^1.50 

SMEATON.— Builder's  Pocket-Companion : 

Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  Surveying,  and  Architecture; 
with  Practical  Rules  and  Instructions  connected  with  the  subject. 
By  A.  C.  Smeaton,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.  i2mo.  .  .  ^1.50 
SMITH.— A  Manual  of  Political  Economy. 
By  E.  Peshine  Smith.  A  New  Edition,  to  which  is  added  a  full 
Index.    i2mo,  $^  2$ 


HENRY  CAR£Y  BaIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  25 


SMITH.— Parks  and  Pleasure-Grounds  : 

Or  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public  Parks,  and 
Gardens.  By  Charles  H.  J.  Smith,  Landscape  Gardener  and 
Garden  Architect,  etc.,  etc.    i2mo.  ....  $2.00 

SMITH.— The  Dyer's  Instructor: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cotton, 
Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woolen  Goods ;  containing  nearly  800 
Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Padding;  anci 
the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and  Handkerchiefs,  and  thu 
various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of  such  work. 
By  David  Smith,  Pattern  Dyer.    i2mo.  .       .       .  $2.00 

SMYTH. — A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Coal  and  Coal-Mining. 
By  Warrington  W.  Smyth,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.,  President  R.  G.  S, 
of  Cornwall.  Fifth  edition,  revised  and  corrected.  With  numer- 
ous illustrations.     l2mo.  ......  $l>7^ 

SNIVELY.— Tables  for  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical  AnaK 
ysis. 

By  John  H.  Snively,  Phr.  D.    8vo.       ....  ;^i.oo 
SNIVELY.— The  Elements  of  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical 
Analysis  : 

A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.   By  John  H.  Snively,  Phr.  D.  i6mo. 

52.00 

STEWART.— The  American  System  : 

Speeches  on  the  Tariff  Question,  and  on  Internal  Improvements, 
principally  delivered  in  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States.  By  Andrew  Stewart,  late  M.  C.  from  Pennsylvania. 
With  a  Portrait,  and  a  Biographical  Sketch.    8vo.      .   .    .  ^3.00 

STOKES.— The  Cabinet-Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Companion: 
Comprising  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable  to  Cabinet  Work; 
Veneering,  Inlaying,  and  Buhl- Work;  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Stain- 
ing Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lacker- 
ing, Japanning,  and  Varnishing;  to  make  French  Polish,  Glues^ 
Cements,  and  Compos'-i^  ns ;  with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  work 
men  generally.  Bv  Stokes.  Illustrated.  A  New  Edition,  with 
an  Appendix  upor  xCnch  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing^ 
etc.,  etc.   i2mo  ^1.25 

STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS; 
Reports  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  and  other  Projjerties  of 
Metals  for  Cannon.  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines  for  Testing 
Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in  service.  By  Officers 
of  the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  Army.  By  authority  of  the  Secre- 
tary  of  War.    Illustrated  by  25  large  steel  plates.  Quarto  .  ^10.00 

SULLIVAN. — Protection  to  Native  Industry. 

By  Sir  Edward  Sullivan,  Baronet,  author  of  "  Ten  Chapters  on 
Social  Reforms."    8vo.  ^I-SO 

SULZ. — A  Treatise  on  Beverages  : 

Or  the  Complete  Practical  Bottler.  Full  instructions  for  Laboratory 
Work,  with  Original  Practical  Recipes  for  all  kinds  of  Carbonated 
Drinks,  Mineral  Waters,  Flavorings,  Extracts,  Syrups,  etc.  By 
Chas.  Herman  Sulz,  Technical  Chemist  and  Practical  Bottler 
1:1  .  J2  I?..  ..-^-".c-     gtg  — .    Hvo.       .        .  $io.oc 


S6       HENRY  CAREY  BAIRu  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


SYME. — Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science. 

By  David  Syme.    i2mo.         .       .  ...  $2.0(i 

TABLES     SHOWING    THE    WEIGHT     OF  ROUND, 
SQUARE,  AND  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC., 

By  Measurement.    Cloih  ......  63 

TAYLOR.— Statistics  of  Coal : 

Including  Mineral  Bituminous  Substances  employed  in  Arts  and 
Manufactures;  with  their  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Commercial 
Distribution  and  Amount  of  Production  and  Consumption  on  the 
American  Continent.  With  Incidental  Statistics  of  the  Iron  Manu- 
facture. By  R.  C.  Taylor.  Second  edition,  revised  by  S.  S.  Halde- 
MAN.    Illustrated  by  five  Maps  and  many  wood  engravings.  8vo., 

cloth  ^10.00 

TEMPLETON.— The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and  the 
Steam-Engine : 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  arranged  for  the  Use  of 
Engineers,  Students,  and  others.    By  William  Templeton,  En- 
gineer.   i2mo.         .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .  ^1.25 

THAUSING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation  of 
Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer: 
With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing.  Elab- 
orated from  personal  experience  by  JULIUS  E.  Thausing,  Professor 
at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  at  the  Agricultural  Institute,  Modling, 
near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  German  by  William  T.  Brannt, 
Thoroughly  and  elaborately  edited,  with  much  American  matter,  and 
according  to  the  latest  and  most  Scientific  Practice,  l)y  A.  Schwarz 
and  Dr.  A^  H.  Bauer.    Illustrated  by  140  Engravings.    8vo.,  815 

pages  ^10.00 

THOMAS.— The  Modern  Practice  of  Photography: 
■   By  R.  W.  Thomas,  F.  C.  S.   8vo.  .       .       .       •     ,  75 

THOMPSON.— Political  Economy.    With  Especial  Refbrence 
to  the  Industrial  History  of  Nations  : 
By  Robert  E.  Thompson,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Social  Science  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.     i2mo.         .        .        .       .  ^1.50 
THOMSON.— Freight  Charges  Calculator: 

By  Andrew  Thomson,  Freight  Agent,  zt^mo.  .  .  ^1.25 
URNER'S  (THE)  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric  Turn* 
ing;  also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instruments;  and 
Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,  Drill,  Vertical  Cutter,  and 
Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and  Instructions  for  working  them. 

i2mo  ^1.25 

TURNING  :  Specimens  of  Fancy  Turning  Executed  on  the 

Hand  or  Foot-Lathe : 
With  Geometric,  Oval,  and  Eccentric  Chucks,  and  Elliptical  Cutting 
Frame.    By  an  Amateur.    Illustrated  by  30  exquisite  Photographs. 

4to.  ^3.00 

JRBIN— BRULL.— A  Practical  Guide  for  Puddling  Iron  and 

Steel. 

By  Ed.  Urbin,  Engineer  of  Arts  and  Manufactures.    A  Prize  Essay, 


) 


HEKRY  CAREV  BAIRB  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


read  before  the  Association  of  Engineers,  Graduate  of  the  School  of 
Mines,  of  Liege,  Belgium,  at  the  Meeting  of  1865-6.  To  which  is 
added  A  Comparison  of  the  Resisting  Properties  of  Iron  and 
Steel.  By  A.  Brull.  Translated  from  the  French  by  A,  A.  Fes- 
QUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.    8vo.  ....  ^i.oo 

VAILE. — Galvanized-Iron  Cornice-Worker's  .Manual  : 

Contaming  Instructions  in  Laying  out  the  Different  Mitres,  and 
Making  Patterns  for  all  kinds  of  Plain  and  Circular  Work.  Also, 
Tables  of  Weights,  Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  olhei" 
Matter  calculated  to  Benefit  the  Trade.  By  Charles  A.  Vaile. 
Illustrated  by  twenty-one  plates.    4to  ^S-OO 

f  ILLE. — On  Artificial  Manures  : 
Their  Chemical  Selection  and  Scientific  Application  to  Agriculture. 
A  series  of  Lectures  given  at  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Vincennes, 
during  1867  and  1874-75.  By  M.  Georges  Ville.  Translated  and 
Edited  by  W^ILLIAM  Crookes,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravings,   8vo.,  450  pages     ......  ;^6.oo 

7ILLE.— The  School  of  Chemical  Manures  : 
Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents.  From 
the  French  of  M.  Geo.  Ville,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet,  "Chemist  and  En- 
gineer.   With  Illustrations.    i2mo.  ....  $1-2^ 

yOQDES.— The  Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket-Companioci 
and  Price-Book  : 
Consisting  of  a  Short  but  Comprehensive  Epitome  of  Decimals,  Duo- 
decimals, Geometry  and .  Mensuration  ;  with  Tables  of  United  States 
Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strengths,  etc.,  of  Iron,  Wood,  Stone, 
Brick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quantities  of  Materials  in  given  Sizes 
and  Dimensions  of  Wood,  Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete 
Bills  of  Prices  for  Carpenter's  Work  and  Painting;  also,  Rules  for 
Computing  and  Valuing  Brick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Paint- 
ing, Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms,  etc.  By 
Frank  W.  Vogdes,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged,  revised, 
and  corrected.    In  one  volume,  368  pages,  full-bound,  pocket-book 

form,  gilt  edges  ;^2.oo 

Cloth       .       .   1.50 

JVAHL. — Galvanoplastic  Manipulations  : 

A  Practical  Guide  tor  the  Gold  and  Silver  Electroplater  and  tne  Gal- 
vanoplastic  Operator.     Comprising  the  Electro-Deposition  of  all 
Metals  by  means  of  the  Battery  and  the  Dynamo-Electric  Machine, 
as  well  as  the  most  approved  Processes  of  Deposition  by  Simple  Im- 
mersion, with  Descriptions  of  Apparatus,  Chemical  Products  employed 
in  the  Art,  etc.    Based  largely  on  the  "  Manipulations  Hydroplas- 
tiques"  of  Alfred  Roseleur.    By  William  H.  Wahl,  Ph.  D. 
(Heid),  Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute.    Illustrated  by  189  eu- 
gravings.    8vo.,  656  pages  ...... 

WALTON. — Coal-Mining  Described  and  Illustrated: 
By  Thomas  H.  Walton,  Mining  Engineer.    Illustrated  by  24  large 
and  elaborate  Plaies,  after  Actual  Workings  and  Apparatus.  $$.00 


28       HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


WARE.— The  Sugar  Beet. 

-  Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe,  Variette. 
of  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examination,  Soils,  Tillage,  Seeds  and  Sowing. 
Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Transportation,  Conserva- 
tion.  Feeding  Qualities  of  the  Beet  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.  By  Lewu 
S.  Ware,  C.  E.,  M.  E.    Illustrated  by  ninety  engravings.  8vo. 

WARN.— The  Sheet-Metal  Worker's  Instructor: 

For  Zinc,  Sheet-Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin-Plate  Workers,  etc.  Contain- 
ing a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems ;  also.  Practical  and  Simple 
Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns  required  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  above  Trades.  By  Reuben  H.  Warn,  Practical 
Tin-Plate  Worker.  To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing 
Instructions  for  Boiler-Making,  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids, 
Rules  for  Calculating  the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Iron,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty- 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.    8vo.        .  ^3.00 

ATARNER.— New  Theorems,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  for  the 
Computation  of  Earth-work : 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final  Estimates, 
of  Students  in  Engineering,  and  of  Contractors  and  other  non-profes. 
sional  Computers.  In  two  parts,  with  an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Prac- 
tical Treatise;  Part  II.  A  Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Appendix. 
Containing  Notes  to  the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I. ;  Explana- 
tions of  the  Construction  of  Scales,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a 
Treatise  upon  Equivalent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  numerous  original  engravings,  comprising 
explanatory  cuts  for  Definitions  and  Problems,  Stereometric  Scales 
and  Diagrams,  and  a  series  of  Lithographic  Drawings  from  Models  i 
Showing  all  the  Combinations  of  Solid  Forms  which  occur  in  Railroad 
Excavations  and  Embankments.  By  John  Warner,  A.  M.,  Mining 
and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  14  Plates.  A  new,  revised 
and  improved  edition.    8vo.     ......  ^4.00 

WATSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe  : 

Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all  kinds, 
Ivory,  Bone  and  Precious  Woods ;  Dyeing,  Coloring,  and  French 
Polishing;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various  methods  practised  to 
produce  Elaborate  work  with  Dispatch,  and  at  Small  Expense.  Bj 
Egbert  P.  Watson,  Author  of  "  The  Modern  Practice  of  American 
Machinists  and  Engineers."    Illustrated  by  78  engravings. 

TVATSON. — The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and 
Engineers  : 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills,  Lat"he 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work  generally ,  with 
the  most  Economical  Speed  for  the  same  ;  the  Results  verified  b) 
Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise,  and  on  the  Floor.  Together 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


29 


with  Workshop  Management,  Economy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam- 
Engine,  Boilers,,  Gears,  Belling,  etc.,  etc.  By  Egbert  P.  Watson, 
Illustrated  by  eighty-six  engravings.    i2mo.      .       .        .  $2.^0 

JVATSON.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Weaving 
by  Hand  and  Power  : 
With  Calculations  and  Tables  for  the  Use  of  those  connected  with  the 
Trade.  By  John  Watson,  Manufacturer  and  Practical  Machine- 
Maker.  Illustrated  by  large  Drawings  of  the  best  Power  Looms. 
8vo.         .       .       .       •  ^7.50 

WATT.— The  Art  of  Soap  Making : 
A  Practical  Hand-book  of  the  Manufacture  of  Plard  and  Soft  Soaps, 
Toilet  Soaps,  etc.,  including  many  New  Processes,  and  a  Chapter  on 
the  Recovery  of  Glycerine  from  Waste  Leys.    By  Alexander 
Watt.   111.    i2mo.  ^3.00 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar,  Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods, 
And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  etc.,  in  which  are  explained, 
in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner,  the  various  Methods  of  Manufactur- 
ing every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar  Goods,  as  sold  by 
ConfectioHcrs  and  others,    i2mo  15 1.50 

WIGHTWICK.— Hints  to  Young  Architects : 
Comprising  Advice  to  those  who,  while  yet  at  school,  are  destined 
to  the  Profession;  to  such  as,  having  passed  their  pupilage,  are  about 
to  travel ;  and  to  those  who,  having  completed  their  education,  are 
about  to  practise.  Together  with  a  Model  Specification  involvir.g  a 
great  variety  of  instructive  and  suggestive  matter.  By  GeorgE 
Wjghtwick,  Architect.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged ;  comprising  Treatises  on  the  Principles  of  Constructirin 
and  Design.    By  G.  HusKissoN  Guillaume,  Architect.  Numerous 

ttiustrations.    One  vol,  i2mo  ^2.00 

— Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 
With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  the  Course  of  Analysis.  By  Pro- 
fessor Heinrich  Will,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Third  Americant 
from  the  eleventh  German  edition.  Edited  by  Charles  F,  HiMES, 
Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa 
8vo.         .       .       •  ^1.50 

WILLIAMS.— On  Heat  and  Steam  : 
Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation,  and  Explo- 
sion.   By  Charles  Wye  Williams,  A.  I.  C.  E.    Illustrated  8vo. 

$3  50 

WILSON.— A  Treatise  on  Steam  Boileils  : 

Their  Strength,  Construction,  and  Economical  Working.  By  Robert 

Wilson.    Illustrated  i2mo  ^2.00 

A^ILSON.— First  Principles  of  Political  Economy  : 
With  Reference  to  Statesmanship  and  the  Progress  of  Civilization. 
By  Professor  W.  D.  Wilson,  of  the  Cornell  University.    A  new  and 
revised  edition.   i2mo  $1.30 


30      HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.' 


WOHLER. — A  Hand-Bookof  Mineral  Analysis: 

By  F.  WoHLER,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Gottin- 
gen.  Edited  by  Henry  B.  Nason,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Renssalaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  New  York.  Illustrated. 
i2mo.      ..........  ,$3.00 

WORSSAM.— On  Mechanical  Saws  : 

From  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1869.  By  S.  W. 
WoRSSAM,  Jr.    Illustrated  by  eighteen  large  plates.   8vo.  ^^2.50 


RECENT  ADDITIONS. 

ANDERSON.— The  Prospector's  Hand-Book: 

A  Guide  for  the  Prospector  and  Traveler  in  Search  of  Metal  Bearing 
or  other  Valuable  Minerals.  By  J.  W.  Anderson.  52  Illustrations. 
l2mo  ^1.50 

BEAUMONT.— Woollen  and  Worsted  Cloth  Manufacture: 

Being  a  Practical  Treatise  for  the  use  of  all  persons  e  mployed  in  the 
manipulation  of  Te/ctile  Fabrics.  By  Robert  Beaumont,  M.  S.  A. 
With  over  200  illustrations,  including  Sketches  of  Machinery, 
Designs,  Cloths,  etc.    391  pp.    i2mo.     ....  ^2.50 

BRANNT.— The  Metallic  Alloys  : 

A  Practical  Guide  for  the  Manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  Alloys,  Amal- 
gams and  Solders  used  by  Metal  Workers,  especially  by  Bell  Founders, 
Bronze  Workers,  Tinsmiths,  Gold  and  Silver  Workers,  Dentists,  etc., 
etc.,  as  vi'ell  as  their  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties.  Edited 
chiefly  from  the  German  of  A.  Krupp  and  Andreas  Wildberger,  with 
additions  by  Wm.  T.  Brannt.  Illustrated,  i2mo.  $2.50 
ERANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Vine- 
gar and  Acetates,  Cider,  and  Fruit- Wines  : 
Preservation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  by  Canning  and  Evaporation ; 
Preparation  of  Fruit-Butters,  Jellies,  Marmalades,  Catchups,  Pickles, 
Mustards,  etc.  Edited  from  various  sources.  By  William  T. 
Brannt.    Illustrated  by  79  Engravings.    479  pp.    8vo.  $5.00 

BRANNT.— The  Metal  Worker's  Handy-Book  of  Receipts 
and  Processes : 

Being  a  Collection  of  Cliemical  Formulas  and  Practical  Manipula- 
tions for  the  working  of  all  Metals ;  including  the  Decoration  and 
Beautifying  of  Articles  Manufactured  therefrom,  as  well  as  then- 
Preservation.  Edited  from  various  sources.  By  William  T. 
Brannt.    Illustrated.    i2mo,  ^$2.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


OAVIS.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Bricks, 

Tiles,  Terra-Cotta,  etc. : 

Including  Hand- Made,  Dry  Clay,  Tempered  Clay,  Soft-Mud,  and 
Stiff-Clay  Bricks,  also  Front,  Hand-Pressed,  Steam- Pressed,  Re- 
pressed, Ornamentally  Shaped  and  Enamelled  Bricks,  Drain  Tiles, 
Straii^ht  and  Curved  Sewer  and  Water-Pipes,  Fire-Clays,  Fire-Bricks, 
Glass  Pots,  Terra-Colta,  Roofing  Tiles,  Flooring  Tiles,  Art  Tiles, 
Mosaic  Plates,  and  Imitation  of  Intarsia  or  Inlaid  Surfaces,  com- 
prising every  Important  Product  of  Clay  Employed  in  Architecture, 
Engineering,  the  Blast  Furnace,  for  Retorts,  etc.,  with  a  History  and 
the  Actual  Processes  in  Handling,  Disintegratin<^,  Tempering  and 
Moulding  the  Clay  into  the  Shape,  Drying  Naturally  and  Artificially^ 
Setting,  Burning  with  Coal,  Natural  Gas  and  Crude  Oil  Fuels,  En- 
amelling in  Polychromic  Colors,  Composition  and  Application  of 
Glazes,  etc.,  including  Full  Detailed  Descriptions  of  the  Most  Mod' 
ern  Machines,  Tools,  Kilns  and  Kiln  Roofs  used.  By  Charle? 
Thomas  Davis.  Second  Edition.  Thoroughly  Revised.  Illus- 
trated by  (217  Engravings.    501  pp.    8vo.        .       .       .  ^S-Od 

POSSELT.— Technology  of  Textile  Design  : 

Being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Application  of 
Weaves  for  all  Textile  Fabrics,  with  minute  reference  to  the  latest 
Inventions  for  Weaving.  Containing  also  an  Appendix,  showing 
the  Analysis  and  giving  the  Calculations  necessary  for  the  Manufac- 
ture of  the  various  Textile  Fabrics.  By  E.  A.  PossELT,  Head 
Master  Textile  Department,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of 
Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia,  vi^ith  over  1000  illustrations.  29a 
pages.    4to.     .........  #5.00 

POSSELT.— The  Jacquard  Machine  Analysed  and  Explained: 

With  an  Appendix  on  the  Preparation  of  Jacquard  Cards,  and 
Practical  Hints  to  Learners  of  Jacquard  Designing.  By  E.  A. 
PossELT.    With  230  illustrations  and  numerous  diagrams.    127  pp. 

4to  ;^3.oo 

RICH.— Artistic  Horse-Shoeing : 

A  Practical  and  Scientific  Treatise,  giving  Improved  Methods  of 
Shoeing,  with  Special  Directions  for  Shaping  Shoes  to  Cure  Different 
Diseases  of  the  Foot,  and  for  the  Correction  of  Faulty  Action  in 
Trotters.  By  George  E-  Rich.  62  Illustrations.  153  pages. 
i2mo    ^1,00 

RICHARDSON.— Practical  Blacksmithing : 

A  Collection  of  Articles  Contributed  at  Different  Times  by  Skilled 
W^orkmen  to  the  columns  of  "  The  Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright," 
and  Covering  nearly  the  Whole  Range  of  Blacksmithing,  from  the 
Simplest  Job  of  Work  to  some  of  the  Most  Complex  Forgings. 
Compiled  and  Edited  by  M.  T.  Richardson. 
Vol.1.  210  Illustrations.  224  pp.  i2mo.  .  .  ,  ^i.oo 
Vol.  II.    230  Illustrations.    262  pages.    i2mo.      .       .  ^i.oo 


32      HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


RICHARDSON  —The  Practical  Horseshoer: 

i5eing  a  Collection  of  Articles  on  Hoiseshoeing  in  all  its  Branchef 
which  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  columns  of  "  The 
Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright,"  etc.    Compiled  and  edited  by  M.  T. 

Richardson.    174  illustrations  i^i.oo 

ROPER. — Instructions   and  Suggestions  for  Engineers  and 
Firemen  : 

By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.    i8mo.    Morocco       .  ^2.00 

ROPER.— The  Steam  Boiler:  Its  Care  and  Management: 
By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.    i2mo.,  tuck,  gilt  edges.  ;^2.oo 

ROPER.— The  Young  Engineer's  Own  Book : 

Containing  an  Explanation  of  the  Principle  and  Theories  on  which 
the  Steam  Engine  as  a  Prime  Mover  is  Based.  By  Stephen  Roper, 
Engineer.     160  illustrations,  363  pages.    i8mo.,  tuck      .  ^3.00 

ROSE. — Modern  Steam- Engines  : 

An  Elementary  Treatise  upon  the  Steam-Engine,  written  in  Plain 
language  ;  for  Use  in  the  Workshop  as  well  as  in  the  Drawing  Office. 
Giving  Full  Explanations  of  the  Construction  of  Modern  Stean:>- 
Engines  :  Including  Diagrams  showing  their  Actual  operation.  To- 
gether with  Complete  but  Simple  Exjilanaiions  of  the  operations  of 
Various  Kinds  of  Valves,  Valve  Motions,  and  Link  Motions,  etc., 
thereby  Enabling  the  Ordinary  Engineer  to  clearly  Understand  the 
Principles  Involved  in  their  Construction  and  Use,  and  to  Plot  out 
their  Movements  upon  the  Drawing  Board.  By  Joshua  Rose.  M.  E. 
Illustrated  by  422  engravings.    4to.,  320  pages       .       .  ^6.00 

ROSE.— Steam  Boilers: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Boiler  Construction  and  Examination,  for  the 
Use  of  Practical  Boiler  Makers,  Boiler  Users,  and  Inspectors;  and 
embracing  in  plain  figures  all  the  calculations  necessary  in  Designing 
or  Classifying  Steam  Boilers.  By  Joshua  Rose,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  73  engravings.    250  pages.    8vo.       ....  $2.':^o 

SCHRIBER.— The  Complete  Carriage  and  Wagon  Painter: 
A  Concise  Compendium  of  the  Art  of  Painting  Carriages,  Wagons, 
and  Sleighs,  embracing  Full  Directions  in  all  the  Various  Branches, 
including  Lettering,  Scrolling,  Ornamenting,  Striping,  Varnisliing, 
and  Coloring,  with  numerous  Recipes  for  Mixing  Colors.  73  Illus- 
trations.   177  pp.    i2mo  $1.00 

VAN  CLEVE.— The  English  and  American  Mechanic : 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Over  Three  Thousand  Receipts,  Rules, 
and  Tables,  designed  for  the  Use  of  every  Mechanic  and  Manuf-.c- 
turer.  By  B.  Frank  VAN  Cleve.  Illustrated.  500  pp.    i2mo.  ;^2.oo 

WAHNSCHAFFE.— Guide  for  the  Scientific  Examination  of 
the  Soil : 

By  Dr.  Felix  Wahnschaffe.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
William  T.  Brannt.  Illustrated  by  numerous  Engravings.  8vo. 
(In  preparation.) 


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